we tend to think about stupid and evil people

我們總會想到愚蠢和邪惡的人們

doing stupid and evil things.

做愚蠢和邪惡的的事

And this idea is nicely summarized

英國評論家威廉哈茲里特

by the British critic William Hazlitt,

精闢地總結了這樣的想法

who wrote, "Prejudice is the child of ignorance."

他寫道，「偏見源於無知。」

I want to try to convince you here

在此我想說服你們

that this is mistaken.

這是錯的

I want to try to convince you

我想努力去說服你們

that prejudice and bias

偏見和偏愛

are natural, they're often rational,

是自然的，它們通常出於理性

and they're often even moral,

它們通常甚至合乎道德

and I think that once we understand this,

而我認為一旦我們理解這個道理

we're in a better position to make sense of them

當它們出現問題時

when they go wrong,

我們較易了解成因為何

when they have horrible consequences,

當偏見造成嚴重的後果

and we're in a better position to know what to do

在這一切發生的時候

when this happens.

我們比較知道該如何處理

So, start with stereotypes. You look at me,

因此，從「刻板印象」開始談起吧。你們看看我

you know my name, you know certain facts about me,

你們知道我的名字，你們知道一些關於我的事

and you could make certain judgments.

你們可以做出一定的判斷

You could make guesses about my ethnicity,

你們可以猜測我的種族

my political affiliation, my religious beliefs.

我的政治傾向，我的宗教信仰

And the thing is, these judgments tend to be accurate.

重點是，這些判斷往往是準確的

We're very good at this sort of thing.

我們對這些事很擅長

And we're very good at this sort of thing

而我們之所以擅長這些事

because our ability to stereotype people

是因為我們能先入為主地憑斷他人

is not some sort of arbitrary quirk of the mind,

這並不是我們腦袋裡的恣意怪想

but rather it's a specific instance

而是一種符合正常程序的

of a more general process,

特定反應

which is that we have experience

也就是說，我們把

with things and people in the world

在這世上經歷的人與事

that fall into categories,

分門別類

and we can use our experience to make generalizations

而我們根據以往經驗

about novel instances of these categories.

歸納這些類別裡的新事物

So everybody here has a lot of experience

所以在此每個人都有很多

with chairs and apples and dogs,

有關椅子、蘋果和狗的經驗

and based on this, you could see

根據這些東西，你們可以看見

unfamiliar examples and you could guess,

不熟悉的事物，你們可以猜測

you could sit on the chair,

椅子是可以坐的

you could eat the apple, the dog will bark.

蘋果是可以吃的，狗會吠叫

Now we might be wrong.

此刻我們卻可能是錯的

The chair could collapse if you sit on it,

若你坐在椅子上，椅子可能會倒

the apple might be poison, the dog might not bark,

蘋果可能有毒，狗可能不會吠叫

and in fact, this is my dog Tessie, who doesn't bark.

其實這是我的狗黛絲，牠不會吠叫

But for the most part, we're good at this.

但在大多數情況下，我們的判斷很準確

For the most part, we make good guesses

在大多數情況下，我們的猜測是合理的

both in the social domain and the non-social domain,

不論在社會領域或其他領域

and if we weren't able to do so,

如果我們不具有這樣的能力

if we weren't able to make guesses about new instances that we encounter,

如果我們無法對新的事物做出猜測

we wouldn't survive.

我們將無法生存

And in fact, Hazlitt later on in his wonderful essay

事實上，哈茲里特後來在他一篇精彩的文章中

concedes this.

承認了這一點

He writes, "Without the aid of prejudice and custom,

他寫道，「沒有偏見和習慣的幫助，

I should not be able to find my way my across the room;

我將找不到穿越房間的路；

nor know how to conduct myself in any circumstances,

也不知道自己在不同情況下該如何反應，

nor what to feel in any relation of life."

也無法感受生命中任何一段情感。」

Or take bias.

現在來討論偏好

Now sometimes, we break the world up into

有時，我們將世界劃分為

us versus them, into in-group versus out-group,

我們和他們，群體內和群體外

and sometimes when we do this,

有時當我們這麼做的時候

we know we're doing something wrong,

我們知道我們正在犯錯

and we're kind of ashamed of it.

我們對此有些慚愧

But other times we're proud of it.

但其他時候我們對此很自豪

We openly acknowledge it.

我們公開承認

And my favorite example of this

我最喜歡的例子

is a question that came from the audience

是在上次選舉前共和黨的辯論中

in a Republican debate prior to the last election.

一個來自觀眾的問題

(Video) Anderson Cooper: Gets to your question,

〈影片〉安德森庫柏：問答時間

the question in the hall, on foreign aid? Yes, ma'am.

觀眾提問，有關對外援助？有請這位女士

Woman: The American people are suffering

女士：美國人在我們的國家裡

in our country right now.

正在遭受苦難

Why do we continue to send foreign aid

為什麼我們要對其他國家

to other countries

提供外援呢？

when we need all the help we can get for ourselves?

此時我們需要這些援助用在我們本國人身上

AC: Governor Perry, what about that?

安德森庫柏：州長佩里，您如何看待此事呢？

(Applause)

〈鼓掌〉

Rick Perry: Absolutely, I think it's—

里克·佩里：是的，我認為—

Paul Bloom: Each of the people onstage

保羅·布魯姆：台上的每個人

agreed with the premise of her question,

同意她問題的前提

which is as Americans, we should care more

這個前提是身為美國人，我們應該更關照

about Americans than about other people.

本國人民，而非其他人民

And in fact, in general, people are often swayed

事實上，一般來說，人們時常會受到影響

by feelings of solidarity, loyalty, pride, patriotism,

這些影響來自對他們的國家或種族

towards their country or towards their ethnic group.

有著團結、忠誠、自豪以及愛國主義

Regardless of your politics, many people feel proud to be American,

不談政治傾向，很多人對自己身為美國人而感到自豪

and they favor Americans over other countries.

他們對美國人的偏愛更勝於其他國家

Residents of other countries feel the same about their nation,

其他國家的人民對自己國家也抱有相同態度

and we feel the same about our ethnicities.

我們對自己的種族也是如此

Now some of you may reject this.

一些人可能會反對這種說法

Some of you may be so cosmopolitan

你們當中某些人可能是世界主義者

that you think that ethnicity and nationality

你們認為種族和國籍

should hold no moral sway.

不應該影響道德觀

But even you sophisticates accept

但即便世故如你們也承認

that there should be some pull

這當中有一股不可抗力

towards the in-group in the domain of friends and family,

是從朋友和家人當中來劃分群體

of people you're close to,

那些與你更親近的人們

and so even you make a distinction

所以連你自己也會劃定界限

between us versus them.

區別我們和他們

Now, this distinction is natural enough

這些區別是自然而然的

and often moral enough, but it can go awry,

通常也不違背道德，但有時可能會出錯

and this was part of the research

這是偉大的社會心理學家亨利•泰吉弗爾

of the great social psychologist Henri Tajfel.

研究的一部份

Tajfel was born in Poland in 1919.

泰吉弗爾於1919年生於波蘭

He left to go to university in France,

他離家到法國唸大學

because as a Jew, he couldn't go to university in Poland,

因為身為猶太人，他不能在波蘭唸大學

and then he enlisted in the French military

隨後在第二次世界大戰

in World War II.

他應募入伍加入法軍

He was captured and ended up

被捕了隨後被送到

in a prisoner of war camp,

戰俘營

and it was a terrifying time for him,

對他來說這是非常恐怖的經歷

because if it was discovered that he was a Jew,

因為如果他一旦被發現是猶太人

he could have been moved to a concentration camp,

他便會被移送到集中營

where he most likely would not have survived.

很難活下來

And in fact, when the war ended and he was released,

事實上，當戰爭結束的時候， 他被釋放了，

most of his friends and family were dead.

他的親友絕大多數都死亡了

He got involved in different pursuits.

他參與不同的活動

He helped out the war orphans.

他幫助戰爭孤兒

But he had a long-lasting interest

但他對於研究偏見

in the science of prejudice,

有著極高的興趣

and so when a prestigious British scholarship

因此當一個極富聲望的、 有關“刻板印象成見” 的英國獎學金機會

on stereotypes opened up, he applied for it,

釋出的時候，他提出了申請

and he won it,

並拿到了獎學金

and then he began this amazing career.

這使他開啟了精彩的職業生涯

And what started his career is an insight

他對偏見的研究始於一個觀點

that the way most people were thinking

他認為多數人對於大屠殺的看法

about the Holocaust was wrong.

是錯誤的

Many people, most people at the time,

很多人，當時絕大多數人

viewed the Holocaust as sort of representing

將大屠殺視為

some tragic flaw on the part of the Germans,

某種德國人的悲劇錯誤

some genetic taint, some authoritarian personality.

獨裁性格中的基因缺陷

And Tajfel rejected this.

泰吉弗爾拒絕這樣解釋

Tajfel said what we see in the Holocaust

他說道，大屠殺的種種

is just an exaggeration

只不過是正常心理狀態的

of normal psychological processes

過度擴張

that exist in every one of us.

這樣的心理狀態存在於我們每個人之中

And to explore this, he did a series of classic studies

為了追根究底，他做了一系列與英國青少年相關的

with British adolescents.

經典研究

And in one of his studies, what he did was he asked

在他的其中一項研究中，

the British adolescents all sorts of questions,

他詢問英國青少年各種不同的問題

and then based on their answers, he said,

根據他們的回答，他向受試者說

"I've looked at your answers, and based on the answers,

「我看過你的答案， 根據你的回答，

I have determined that you are either" —

我判定你是」—

he told half of them —

他告訴青少年中一半的人—

"a Kandinsky lover, you love the work of Kandinsky,

「一位康定斯基迷， 你喜愛康定斯基的作品，

or a Klee lover, you love the work of Klee."

你是克利迷， 你喜愛克利的畫作。」

It was entirely bogus.

這完全是胡編的

Their answers had nothing to do with Kandinsky or Klee.

青少年的答案和康定斯基或者克利一點關係也沒有

They probably hadn't heard of the artists.

他們甚至還未聽說過這兩位藝術家的大名

He just arbitrarily divided them up.

泰吉弗爾只是任意地把青少年們劃分開來

But what he found was, these categories mattered,

但他發現，這樣的類別劃分是有作用的

so when he later gave the subjects money,

隨後，他讓這些青少年分配錢

they would prefer to give the money

他們更願意將金錢分給

to members of their own group

與自己同組的人

than members of the other group.

而不是另一組的人

Worse, they were actually most interested

更糟的是，他們真的很樂於

in establishing a difference

建立差異性

between their group and other groups,

來區分自己的組和其他組

so they would give up money for their own group

為了讓別組少拿到些錢

if by doing so they could give the other group even less.

他們甚至願意放棄自己的錢

This bias seems to show up very early.

這樣的偏愛很快就展現出來

So my colleague and wife, Karen Wynn, at Yale

我的妻子也是我的同事，凱倫•威恩

has done a series of studies with babies

在耶魯大學做了一系列有關嬰兒的研究

where she exposes babies to puppets,

她將幼兒放在玩偶旁邊

and the puppets have certain food preferences.

玩偶有它們各自喜愛的食物

So one of the puppets might like green beans.

某個玩偶可能喜愛青豆

The other puppet might like graham crackers.

另個玩偶更愛全麥餅乾

They test the babies own food preferences,

研究人員測試了幼兒們自身的食物偏好

and babies typically prefer the graham crackers.

幼兒們通常比較喜歡全麥餅乾

But the question is, does this matter to babies

問題是，這樣的喜好差別

in how they treat the puppets? And it matters a lot.

會影響到幼兒們對待玩偶的態度嗎？ 確實有很大影響

They tend to prefer the puppet

幼兒們更喜歡

who has the same food tastes that they have,

和他們有相同口味偏好的玩偶

and worse, they actually prefer puppets

更糟的是，其實讓幼兒們更喜歡的玩偶

who punish the puppet with the different food taste.

是那些會去懲罰其他有不同食物品味的玩偶

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

We see this sort of in-group, out-group psychology all the time.

這樣區分內外群體的現象比比皆是

We see it in political clashes

政治衝突中也會展現

within groups with different ideologies.

在意識形態不同的群體當中

We see it in its extreme in cases of war,

戰爭是最極端的例子

where the out-group isn't merely given less,

外群體不是被輕視

but dehumanized,

而是不被當作人類對待

as in the Nazi perspective of Jews

如同納粹視猶太人

as vermin or lice,

為害蟲或是蝨子

or the American perspective of Japanese as rats.

美國人視日本人為鼠輩

Stereotypes can also go awry.

刻板印象是會歪曲現實的

So often they're rational and useful,

通常這些刻板印象是理性的且有幫助的

but sometimes they're irrational,

但有時候也毫無道理

they give the wrong answers,

會給出錯誤的答案

and other times

也有時候

they lead to plainly immoral consequences.

這些刻板印象會導致不道德的後果

And the case that's been most studied

最常被研究的案例

is the case of race.

是種族

There was a fascinating study

在2008年美國大選前

prior to the 2008 election

有個極好的研究

where social psychologists looked at the extent

社會心理學家研究觀察

to which the candidates were associated with America,

哪位總統候選人會讓人聯想到美國

as in an unconscious association with the American flag.

就像不知不覺聯想到美國國旗一樣

And in one of their studies they compared

在其中一項研究中，他們比較了

Obama and McCain, and they found McCain

歐巴馬和麥凱恩，他們發現麥凱恩

is thought of as more American than Obama,

比奧巴馬更加「美國人」

and to some extent, people aren't that surprised by hearing that.

某種程度上，人們甚至並未對此感到驚訝

McCain is a celebrated war hero,

麥凱恩是一位著名的戰爭英雄

and many people would explicitly say

很多人都明確表示

he has more of an American story than Obama.

比起歐巴馬，麥凱恩與美國的淵源更深

But they also compared Obama

研究人員也以歐巴馬

to British Prime Minister Tony Blair,

和英國首相布萊爾做比較

and they found that Blair was also thought of

他們發現布萊爾也被認為

as more American than Obama,

比歐巴馬更加「美國人」

even though subjects explicitly understood

即使他們完全知道

that he's not American at all.

布萊爾根本不是美國人

But they were responding, of course,

但，想當然爾，人們是針對

to the color of his skin.

膚色作出回應的

These stereotypes and biases

這樣的成見和偏好

have real-world consequences,

在現實生活中造成影響

both subtle and very important.

有些影響輕微，有些影響深遠

In one recent study, researchers

在最近的一個研究中，研究人員

put ads on eBay for the sale of baseball cards.

在eBay上刊登廣告銷售籃球卡

Some of them were held by white hands,

有些是白人的手握著籃球卡

others by black hands.

有些則是黑人的手握著

They were the same baseball cards.

他們都賣一樣的籃球卡

The ones held by black hands

黑人的手握著的籃球卡

got substantially smaller bids

得到的買家出價

than the ones held by white hands.

價位大幅低於白人的手握著的籃球卡

In research done at Stanford,

在史丹佛大學的一項研究當中

psychologists explored the case of people

心理學家研究了

sentenced for the murder of a white person.

因謀殺白人而被判刑的罪犯

It turns out, holding everything else constant,

結果顯示，在不考慮其他因素的前提下

you are considerably more likely to be executed

若你長得像右圖的人

if you look like the man on the right

則你被判處死刑的機率

than the man on the left,

遠高於左圖的人

and this is in large part because

這主要歸因於

the man on the right looks more prototypically black,

右圖的人看起來比較像是典型的黑人

more prototypically African-American,

較為典型的非裔美國人

and this apparently influences people's decisions

這顯然影響到了人們

over what to do about him.

對他所做出的決定

So now that we know about this,

現在我們知道了成見和偏愛的存在

how do we combat it?

我們要如何對抗這樣的想法呢？

And there are different avenues.

有很多不同的方法

One avenue is to appeal

一個方法是訴諸於

to people's emotional responses,

人們的情感反應

to appeal to people's empathy,

使人們感同身受

and we often do that through stories.

通常我們透過故事達成此目的

So if you are a liberal parent

如果你是開明的父母

and you want to encourage your children

你想要鼓勵你的孩子