religions, such as Buddhism and Confucianism.

Formerly heavily influenced by both Chinese philosophy and Indian philosophy, as with

Mitogaku and Zen, much modern Japanese philosophy is now also influenced by Western philosophy.

== Ancient and medieval thought ==

Before feudalism was firmly established in Japan, Buddhism occupied the mainstream of

Japanese thought.

The Buddhist culture introduced politically by Prince Shōtoku is completed as the "making

a country safe" thought in the Nara period.

When the Heian period (794–1185) began, in substitution for the "making a country

safe thought", form of esoteric Buddhism collectively known as mikkyō became widespread.

However, in the late noble era when pessimism was popular due to the "belief that Buddhism

will decline during the latter days of this world", the Pure Land movements spread out

encouraging anticipation of a "future life" as a means to cope with desperation over "life

in this world".

During the Kamakura period (1185–1333) when government dominated by the samurai class

began, a “new” Buddhism for the newly-risen class (samurai) appears.

=== Arrival of Buddhism and early influence in Japan ===

In ancient Japan, the arrival of Buddhism closely relates the national construction

and the national centralization of power.

Prince Shōtoku and the Soga family fought and overcame the Mononobe family, who had

handled the ancient Japanese religion, and elaborated a plan for national governance

based on the unification of the legal codes system and Buddhism.

While cooperating with the Soga family, Prince Shōtoku, who was the regent of the Empress

Suiko, showed a deep understanding in "foreign" Buddhism, and planned to stabilize national

politics through the use of Buddhism.

The thought that national peace and security came through the power of Buddhism is called

the "making a country safe" thought.

In the Nara period, in particular the times of Emperor Shōmu, the Kokubun-ji temples

and Kokubun-ni-ji temples were erected throughout the whole country and Tōdai-ji Temple and

the Daibutsu were erected in Nara.

The Buddhist policy of the state reached its apex during the Nara period, as evidenced

by Jianzhen of the Tang dynasty bringing an imperial ordination platform to Todai-ji Temple,

While Nara Buddhism followed only the "making a country safe" thought, Heian Buddhism brought

not only national peace and security but also the personal worldly profit.

Because practitioners of Heian Buddhism frequently performed severe ascetic practices, incantations

and prayers in the mountains, this Buddhism came to be called mikkyō.

Kūkai, a Buddhist monk, learned Chinese esoteric Buddhism while on a diplomatic mission to

the Chinese court, and combined Japanese Buddhism with Chinese esoteric Buddhist practices to

form Japanese Shingon Buddhism.

Saichō, a Buddhist monk who also journeyed to China, learned the practices of the Chinese

Tendai sect and argued that the teachings of the Lotus Sutra should be the core of Japanese

Buddhism.

By the late Heian era, the earthly focus of Heian Buddhism led Buddhist monks to declare

a "sinful age" wherein the possibility of relief in this world was denied and therefore

a trend of looking for reincarnation to the Buddhists' paradise after death arose.

Additionally, the new thought that "Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this

world" led to the rise of the Pure Land movement.

This movement, spearheaded by Kūya, a follower of Pure Land Buddhism, preached faith to the

Amitābha and taught that all people could reach the Buddhist paradise, not just Buddhist

monks.

=== Kamakura Buddhism === The Jōdo faith, which affected by the Jodo

sect of the late Heian period, relies on salvation through the benevolence of Amitābha, and

is going to be relieved by its power.

Hōnen, who initiated the Jodo sect of Buddhism, abandoned other ascetic practices entirely.

He preached his pupils to believe in Amitabha and to earnestly pray "namu-amida-butsu",

and so they would go to the paradise.

His pupil, Shinran who initiated Pure Land Buddhism, thoroughly carried out Honen's teaching

and preached the absolute dependence.

In addition, Shinran advocated that an object of the relief of the Amitabha was a criminal

who was aware of a worldly and desirous criminal oneself.

Ippen, who initiated the Jishu sect, began "the chanting religious dance".

As contrast with dependent Jōdō faith, Zen Buddhism attempts to be spiritually self-awakened

by Zen meditation.

Eisai learned Rinzai sect in China.

He gave pupils a difficult problem and he made them solving the problem, and so his

pupils would be enlightened by themselves.

Rinzai Zen was supported widely by the upper samurai class in the Kamakura period.

Dōgen learned Sōtō sect in China.

Oppose to Eisai, he preached enlightenment by earnest sitting meditation (zazen).

Soto Zen was supported by the local samurais.

Most schools of Nichiren Buddhism (Japanese: 法華系仏教 Hokke-kei Bukkyō) refer to

the priest and teacher Nichiren as their founding father.

In his teachings he underlined the, to his mind, supremacy of the Lotus Sutra.

He advocated the attainment of Buddhahood during one's lifetime and regarded his interpretation

of the Buddhist teachings the correct form of practice for the Latter Day of the Law

mappō.

One of his major treatises is the "Rissho Ankoku Ron" (On Establishing the Correct teaching

for the Peace of the Land).

The chanting of the Mantra "Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō" is to this day the central practice

to almost all Nichiren Buddhist schools and organisations.

== Early modern thought ==

Whereas the ancient and medieval thought of Japan was tied closely to Buddhism, the early

modern thought of Japan was mainly Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, which was designated

for official study of the Tokugawa shogunate.

In addition, rational Confucianism stimulated Kokugaku, Rangaku and the non-official popular

thought after the middle Edo period.

=== Confucianism ===

In the Edo period, Confucianism was the authorised study.

Various schools of neo-Confucianism were popular.

The Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism respected family-like feudal social position order.

Hayashi Razan assumed the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism to be the theoretical basics

of the Tokugawa shogunate.

Through the principle of civilian government, Yushima Seidō dedicating to Confucius was

established.

By the Kansei Reforms, the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism were still more strengthened

and authorized by the Tokugawa shogunate.

In addition, the thought of a school of the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism gave big

influence to the political movement advocating reverence for the Emperor and the expulsion

of foreigners of the late Tokugawa era.

In contrast with the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism, the Wang Yangming school of neo-Confucianism

respecting practical ethics consistently monitored and oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate because

of criticisms for the socio-political conditions under the Tokugawa shogunate.

The third schools of neo-Confucianism took consideration into the real intentions of

original texts by Confucius and Mencius.

Yamaga Sokō established his philosophy on Confucian ethics, and assumed the samurai

to be the highest class.

Itō Jinsai paid attention to "ren" of Confucius and he respected "ren" as the love for another

person and "truth" as pure consideration.

In addition, deriving from his substantial studies of ancient Chinese classics, Ogyū

Sorai insisted that original Confucian spirit is to rule the world and to save a citizen.

=== Kokugaku and Rangaku ===

In the middle of the Edo period, Kokugaku, the study of ancient Japanese thought and

culture, became popular against foreign ideas such as Buddhism or Confucianism.

By Sakoku policy of the Tokugawa shogunate, Edo intellectuals could not have any positive

contact with Western civilization, and so Rangaku, Dutch learning, was the only window

to the West.

In the middle days of the Edo period, Kokugaku became popular while being influenced by positivist

Confucianism with nationalism as a background.

Kokugaku positively studied ancient Japanese thought and culture, including "Kojiki", "Nihon

Shoki" and "Man'yōshū", and they aimed at excavating original moral culture of Japan

which was different from Confucianism and Buddhism.

Kamo no Mabuchi wrestled with the study of "Manyoshu" and called "masurao-buri" for masculine

and tolerant style, and he evaluated the collection as pure and simple.

Through his study of the Kojiki, Motoori Norinaga argued that the essence of the Japanese literature

came from "mono no aware" which was natural feelings to occur when you contacted with

an object.

He respected Japanese "Yamato spirit" instead of Chinese (Confucianism / Buddhism) "Kara

spirit".

According to him, Kokugaku should pursue Japanese old way of "Shinto".

Through his study of Kokugaku, Hirata Atsutane advocated nationalistic State Shinto, the

obedience to the Emperor and abolition of Confucianism and Buddhism.

It was a driving force to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration.

In Sakoku period of the Edo period, there was no direct contact with the West, but,

Rangaku became popular by encouraging importation of Western books translated in Chinese from

China during the Kyōhō Reforms.

Maeno Ryotaku and Sugita Genpaku translated Dutch "Tafel Anatomie" into Japanese.

Dutch learning unfolded to other Western studies such as British, French and American studies

by the late Tokugawa era.

The manner of "Japanese spirit, Western civilisation" was completed by Sakuma Shōzan's straightforward

expression, "Eastern ethics and Western technology".

Because Takano Chōei and Watanabe Kazan of the person of Dutch learning criticized Sakoku

strictly, they were oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate.

=== Popular thought === In the Edo period, private schools were opened

by samurais, merchants and scholars who played an active part.

Their thoughts were criticisms for the dominant feudal order.

Ishida Baigan synthesized Confucianism, Buddhism and Shinto, and established practical philosophy

for the masses.

He recommended working hard at commerce as the effect by honesty and thrift.

Ando Shoeki called nature's world the ideal society where all human beings engaged in

farming and they lived self-sufficiently without artificiality.

He criticized a lawful society where there were feudal class discrimination and the difference

between the rich and poor.

Ninomiya Sontoku insisted that people must repay the virtues, which supported their existence,

with own virtue.

== Late Modern thought ==

While the early modern Japanese thought developed in Confucianism and Buddhism, English Enlightenment

and French human rights were prevalent after the Meiji Restoration rapidly affected by

Western thought.

From the time of Sino- and Russo-Japanese Wars, Japanese capitalism highly developed.

Christianity and socialism developed and they tied to various social movements.

In addition, nationalistic thought and study were formed while being opposed to foreign

study.

=== The Enlightenment and people's rights ===

In the Meiji Restoration, English and French civil society was introduced, in particular,

utilitarianism and social Darwinism from England, and popular sovereignty of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

from France.

The thinkers of the early Meiji period advocated British Enlightenment derived from Western

civil society.

They attempted to criticise Japanese traditional authority and feudalism.

However they were finally in harmony with the government and accepted the modernization

from the above without the radicalness.

In 1873, Mori Arinori formed Meirokusha.

The people who gathered in this cultural association had much in common with points such as regarding

practical learning as important, catching human characteristics practically and assuming

the form of government that accepted the conditions of a country an ideal.

Mori Arinori promoted national education as Minister of Education.

Nishi Amane affirmed a human behaviour based on interest.

Katō Hiroyuki threw away natural rights under influence of social Darwinism, and instead

advocated the survival of the fittest.

Fukuzawa Yukichi who introduced British utilitarianism to Japan advocated the natural rights assumed

that the human rights were given from the heaven.

He considered the development of the civilization to be the development of the human spirit,

and it was assumed that one's independence led to independence of one country.

Fukuzawa thought that there was the government in "sake of the convenience", and its appearance

should be suitable to the culture.

He said that there is no single ideal form of government.

In addition, he insisted that Japan should have gone into the continent externally against

the Great Powers.While members of Meirokusha finally advocated harmonization of the government

and people, democratic thinkers absorbed radical people's rights from France and they supported

national resistance and revolution verbally against the Meiji oligarchy after the Satsuma

Rebellion.

In 1874, Itagaki Taisuke introduced the establishment of the elected legislature.

It spread nationwide as the Freedom and People's Rights Movement.

Ueki Emori helped Itagaki and he drew up a radical draft.

Strongly influenced from Rousseau, Nakae Chōmin argued for people's sovereignty and individual

freedom.

However, concerning with Japanese situation, he pointed out the importance of parliamentary

monarchy.

According to him, the Imperial Constitution should be gradually revised by the Diet.

From the late period of Meiji to the Taishō era, a democratic trend spread as a background

of bourgeois political consciousness.

Its current led to political movements for safeguarding the Constitution and for the

popular election.

Yoshino Sakuzō argued for party cabinet politics and popular election.

He did not deeply pursue who was the sovereign but he insisted political goal aim for people's

happiness and political decision aim for people's intention.

Minobe Tatsukichi interpreted a sovereign as not an emperor but the state.