made a very important impact on us.

這項技術

It changed the way our history developed.

對我們產生了巨大的影響

But it's a technology so pervasive,

它改變了我們人類歷史發展的方向

so invisible,

但是它是如此的普遍

that we, for a long time,

如此的難以察覺

forgot to take it into account

以至於長久以來

when we talked about

當我們在討論人類歷史時

human evolution.

總是忘記將它納入考量

But we see the results of this technology, still.

.

So let's make a little test.

但是我們仍然看到了這個技術的影響

So everyone of you turns to their neighbor please.

現在，我們來做個小小測試

Turn and face your neighbors.

請每個人面向自己身邊的人

Please, also on the balcony.

面向自己座位旁的人

Smile. Smile. Open the mouths.

看台上的人也請這麼作

Smile, friendly.

笑，打開嘴巴

(Laughter)

友善的微笑

Do you --

.

Do you see any Canine teeth?

你是否

(Laughter)

你是否看到對方的犬齒？

Count Dracula teeth

.

in the mouths of your neighbors?

數數在你身旁的人嘴裡

Of course not.

有幾顆像吸血鬼的尖牙？

Because our dental anatomy

當然沒有半個

is actually made,

因為我們牙齒型態

not for tearing down raw meat from bones

的安排與設計

or chewing fibrous leaves for hours.

並非用來嘶咬骨頭上的生肉

It is made for a diet

或花許多時間咀嚼充滿纖維的葉子

which is soft, mushy,

而是設計來咀嚼

which is reduced in fibers,

柔軟、糊狀

which is very easily chewable

纖維量少

and digestible.

易咀嚼及

Sounds like fast food, doesn't it.

消化的食物

(Laughter)

聽起來很像速食，不是嗎？

It's for cooked food.

.

We carry in our face the proof

我們的牙齒是設計給烹煮過的食物

that cooking,

我們的臉，就是

food transformation,

烹煮

made us what we are.

這個改變食物型態的技術

So I would suggest that we change how we classify ourselves.

型塑了現代人外型的證據

We talk about ourselves as omnivores.

因此我建議我們改變我們原先的自我分類

I would say, we should call ourselves coctivors --

我們總說人類是雜食性動物

(Laughter)

我倒覺得，我們該稱自己是熟食性動物（coctivors）

from coquere, to cook.

.

We are the animals

衍伸自拉丁文的coqure （烹煮）

who eat cooked food.

我們是

No, no, no, no. Better --

吃熟食的動物

to live of cooked food.

不不不，更好

So cooking is a very important technology.

靠熟食生存

It's technology.

所以烹煮無疑是很重要的技術

I don't know how you feel,

這個技術

but I like to cook for entertainment.

我不知道你們心裡怎麼想

And you need some design

但我喜歡烹飪款待別人

to be successful.

而且你需要一些巧思

So, cooking is a very important technology,

才能成功

because it allowed us to acquire

所以烹煮其實是一個很重要的技術

what brought you all here:

因為它讓我們有機會演化、發展出

the big brain,

這個讓我們共聚一堂的器官：

this wonderful cerebral cortex we have.

大腦

Because brains are expensive.

我們有棒極了的大腦皮質

Those have to pay tuition fees know.

因為演化出大腦是如此昂貴

(Laughter)

所以我們現在得付學費

But it's also, metabolically speaking, expensive.

.

You now, our brain is two to three percent of the body mass,

而就代謝而言，大腦是耗能的

but actually it uses 25 percent of the total energy we use.

現代人的大腦大約僅佔身體總體重的2-3%

It's very expensive.

但它卻消耗了25%我們所攝取的能量

Where does the energy come from. Of course, from food.

所以它非常耗能

If we eat raw food,

而這些能量要從哪裡來呢? 當然是從食物

we cannot release really the energy.

如果我們吃生的食物

So this ingenuity of our ancestors,

我們便無法好好的運用其所含的能量

to invent this most marvelous technology.

而我們聰明的祖先

Invisible -- everyone of us does it every day, so to speak.

發明了這個非凡的技術

Cooking made it possible

儘管每個人天天使用卻仍難以察覺

that mutations,

烹煮這項技術

natural selections, our environment,

使得基因突變、

could develop us.

天擇以及環境

So if we think about

有機會影響我們的演化與發展

this unleashing human potential,

試想看看

which was possible by cooking and food,

這項被解放的人類潛能

why do we talk so badly about food?

便是因為烹煮與食物才有機會發展

Why is it always do and don'ts

為什麼我們如此關注食物

and it's good for you, it's not good for you?

為什麼總要考慮吃或不吃

I think the good news for me

或是哪些食物對你有益、哪些有害?

would be if we could go back

我想對我來說好消息是

and talk about the unleashing,

如果我們回頭想想

the continuation of the unleashing of human potential.

這項被釋放的潛能

Now, cooking allowed also

以及它延續至今的各種影響

that we became a migrant species.

烹煮這項技術

We walked out of Africa two times.

曾使我們成為遷徙性的物種

We populated all the ecologies.

人類曾經兩次走出非洲

If you can cook, nothing can happen to you,

我們幾乎占據了大多數的生態環境

because whatever you find,

只要會烹煮，生存幾乎沒什麼困難

you will try to transform it.

因為不論你找到什麼

It keeps also your brain working.

你都能夠透過烹煮來使之可食

Now the very easy and simple technology

因此讓你的腦袋能繼續運作

which was developed

而這項簡單的技術

actually runs after this formula.

在被發明後

Take something which looks like food, transform it,

便遵循這樣的模式

and it gives you a good, very easy, accessible energy.

取得某些看起來像食物的東西，然後改變它們

This technology affected two organs,

它們便能夠提供優質又方便的能量來源

the brain and the gut, which it actually affected.

這項技術影響了兩個器官

The brain could grow, but the gut actually shrunk.

腦以及消化道，尤其是消化道

Okay, it's not obvious to be honest.

人類的腦變大了，但消化道卻變小了

(Laughter)

好吧，我承認看起來不是那麼明顯

But it shrunk to 60 percent

.

of primate gut

但相對於其他靈長類動物

of my body mass.

人類消化道佔總體重的

So because of having cooked food,

比例減少了60%

it's easier to digest.

因為烹煮過的食物

Now having a large brain, as you know,

更容易消化

is a big advantage,

而擁有較大的腦，就我們所知

because you can actually influence your environment.

是非常有利的

You can influence your own technologies you have invented.

因為它使人類有能力去改變生存環境

You can continue to innovate and invent.

改進既有的技術

Now the big brain did this also with cooking.

並且持續的創新與發明

But how did it actually run this show?

大腦也改進、創新烹煮方法

How did it actually interfere?

這實際上是如何進行的呢？

What kind of criteria did it use?

大腦如何影響烹煮技術的發展？

And this is actually taste reward and energy.

而它所用的又是怎樣的準則呢？

You know we have up to five tastes,

實際上就是味覺、回饋與能量

three of them sustain us.

人類具有五種味覺

Sweet -- energy.

其中三個維持我們生存

Umami -- this is a meaty taste.

甜味與能量的攝取有關

You need proteins for muscles, recovery.

甘味則是來自肉類

Salty,

蛋白質則是合成肌肉及復原體力所需

because you need salt, otherwise your electric body will not work.

鹹味

And two tastes which protect you --

人類需要鹽類，否則帶電的身體無法正常運作

bitter and sour,

另外還有兩種味覺是用來保護人類

which are against

苦味及酸味

poisonous and rotten material.

幫助我們分辨

But of course, they are hard-wired

有毒及腐壞的食物

but we use them still in a sophisticated way.

即使人類的味覺是天生的

Think about bittersweet chocolate;

但使用味覺的方式卻是人為的複雜精巧

or think about the acidity

想想苦甜巧克力

of yogurt -- wonderful --

想想優格的酸味

mixed with strawberry fruits.

多麼美妙

So we can make mixtures of all this kind of thing

混和著莓果的味道

because we know

我們可將各種食材隨意組合

that, in cooking, we can transform it

因為我們知道

to the form.

透過烹煮，食物得以轉化成

Reward: this is a more complex

更好吃、更營養的狀態

and especially integrative

回饋：這一點更複雜

form of our brain

尤其是大腦在整合訊息

with various different elements --

的狀態

the external states, our internal states,

跟各種因素：

how do we feel, and so on are put together.

外部環境、內在狀態

And something which maybe you don't like

我們的感受及其他因素等等，加總的影響

but you are so hungry that you really will be satisfied to eat.

有些食物可能我們並不喜歡

So satisfaction was a very important part.

但卻是餓到會心滿意足地吃下

And as I say, energy was necessary.

所以滿足感是很重要的因素

Now how did the gut actually

如同我所說的，能量則是必要的

participate in this development?

而消化道是怎樣

And the gut is a silent voice --

參與烹煮技術發展？

it's going more for feelings.

消化道無聲地發言

I use the euphemism digestive comfort --

仰賴知覺來傳遞訊息

actually -- it's a digestive discomfort,

也就是消化時的舒適感

which the gut is concerned with.

但實際上，消化不適的感覺

If you get a stomach ache, if you get a little bit bloated,

才是身體所關注的訊號

was not the right food, was not the right cooking manipulation

比如說如果你胃痛或是胃脹氣

or maybe other things went wrong.

你就知道哪些食物不該吃、不該那樣料理

So my story is a tale of two brains,

或者你吃的食物哪些地方不對勁

because it might surprise you,

所以我的故事是由兩個腦組成的

our gut has a full-fledged brain.

而這大概會讓你覺得驚訝

All the managers in the room say,

我們的消化道也有個獨立成熟的大腦

"You don't tell me something new, because we know, gut feeling.

有些人也許會說：

This is what we are using."

「這又不是什麼新鮮事，因為我們知道腸胃感，就是直覺（gut feeling）

(Laughter)

這個詞我們天天都在用啊！」

And actually you use it and it's actually useful.

.

Because our gut is connected to our emotional limbic system,

我們的確都有使用消化道腦，它也的確是有用的

they do speak with each other

消化道與掌管情緒的邊緣系統互相連結

and make decisions.

彼此互相溝通與傳遞訊息

But what it means

並作出決定

to have a brain there

我所指的

is that, not only the big brain

消化道中的腦

has to talk with the food,

說明不只是大腦

the food has to talk with the brain,

會跟食物溝通

because we have to learn actually

食物也必須要傳遞訊息給大腦

how to talk to the brains.

因此，我們必須要

Now if there's a gut brain,

學著跟大腦溝通

we should also learn to talk with this brain.

此外

Now 150 years ago,

我們也應該學著跟消化道腦溝通

anatomists described very, very carefully --

大約一百五十年前

here is a model of a wall of a gut.

解剖學家便對消化道有了精準的描述

I took the three elements --

這是消化道管壁結構的示意圖

stomach, small intestine and colon.

我列出了消化道的三個器官

And within this structure,

胃、小腸、結腸

you see these two pinkish layers,

細看他們的結構

which are actually the muscle.

你可以看到兩層粉紅色的結構

And between this muscle, they found nervous tissues,

這兩層是肌肉

a lot of nervous tissues,

而在肌肉中間，便存在著神經組織

which penetrate actually the muscle --

許許多多的神經組織

penetrate the submucosa,

這些神經穿過了肌肉

where you have all the elements for the immune system.

也穿過了黏膜下層

The gut is actually the largest immune system,

黏膜下層與免疫系統有關

defending your body.

消化道其實是人體最大的免疫系統

It penetrates the mucosa.

防衛你的身體

This is the layer which actually touches the food you are swallowing

這些神經組織也穿透黏膜層

and you digest,

而此層直接與你所吃

which is actually the lumen.

以及所消化的食物接觸

Now if you think about the gut,

也就是內腔

the gut is -- if you could stretch it --

想像一下你的消化道

40 meters long,

如果你拉開你的消化道

the length of a tennis court.

它會有四十公尺長

If we could unroll it,

大約是網球場的長度

get out all the folds and so on,

如果將它延展開

it would have 400 sq. meters of surface.

將其中的皺摺都展開

And now this brain takes care over this,

它的表面積大約有四百平方公尺

to move it with the muscles and to do defend the surface

而這隱藏在消化道的腦

and, of course, digest our food we cook.

負責控制消化道肌肉的運作、保護消化道表面

So if we give you a specification,

當然，也消化烹煮過的食物

this brain, which is autonomous,

容我詳細說明消化道腦

have 500 million nerve cells,

消化道腦具有自主性

100 million neurons --

有五億個神經細胞

so around the size of a cat brain,

一億個神經元

so there sleeps a little cat --

大約跟貓的腦一樣大

thinks for itself,

這裡可說是睡著一隻小貓呢!

optimizes whatever it digests.

消化道會自己思考

It has 20 different neuron types.

並將消化所得的能量妥善運用

It's got the same diversity you find actually in a pig brain,

它有二十種不同的神經元

where you have 100 billion neurons.

大約跟豬的腦一樣多樣化

It has autonomous organized microcircuits,

但人類的消化道有一千億個神經元

has these programs which run.

而消化道有著自主的小型神經迴路

It senses the food; it knows exactly what to do.

依照某些方式運行

It senses it by chemical means

消化道可感受各種食物，並知道應該怎麼處理它們

and very importantly by mechanical means,

藉著化學方式，還有

because it has to move the food --

更重要的，力學的方式來感受食物

it has to mix all the various elements

因為消化道必須要移動食團

which we need for digestion.

並且混合其它消化所需的

This control of muscle is very, very important,

各種元素

because, you know, there can be reflexes.

所以消化道肌肉的控制是非常非常重要的

If you don't like a food, especially if you're a child, you gag.

如你所知，

It's this brain which makes this reflex.

如果不喜歡某種食物，特別是你年幼時，你會作嘔

And then finally,

就是消化道腦負責這樣的反射動作

it controls also the secretion of this molecular machinery,

最後

which actually digests the food we cook.

消化道腦也控制著某些分子的分泌

Now how do the two brains work with each other?

這些分子是用來消化食物的

I took here a model from robotics --

而腦與消化道中的腦彼此如何合作

it's called the Subsumption Architecture.

在這用一個機械科學的模型來解釋

What it means is that we have a layered control system.

稱為「包容式體系結構」

The lower layer, our gut brain,

指的是我們有著層級式的控制系統

has its own goals -- digestion defense --

較低層級的消化道腦

and we have the higher brain

有著自己的職責：消化及防禦

with the goal of integration

另外還有較高層級的腦

and generating behaviors.

負責整合身體的各種訊息

Now both look -- and this is the blue arrows --

並引發行為

both look to the same food, which is in the lumen

看看藍色的箭頭

and in the area of your intestine.

大腦與消化道腦都能感覺腸腔中的食物

The big brain integrates signals,

也都感測著腸道中相同的區域

which come from the running programs

大腦整合這些訊息

of the lower brain,

而這些訊息其實是來自

But subsumption means

消化道腦（綠色箭頭）

that the higher brain can interfere with the lower.

所謂的「包容式」，即

It can replace,

較高層級的腦可以影響較低層級的消化道腦

or it can inhibit actually, signals.

大腦可以取代

So if we take two types of signals --

或者該說是抑制腸胃道的訊號（紅色箭頭）

a hunger signal for example.

我用飢餓跟飽足感來說明

If you have an empty stomach,

比方說，飢餓的訊號

your stomach produces a hormone called ghrelin.

如果你肚子空空

It's a very big signal;

你的胃便會產生一種叫作飢餓素（ghrelin）的賀爾蒙

it's sent to the brain says,

它是一種很強烈的訊號

"Go and eat."

會被傳送至大腦並且對大腦說

You have stop signals --

「快去吃點東西!！」