I'm a neuroscientist, and I study decision-making.

我是個神經科學家，我研究作決定的過程。

I do experiments to test how different chemicals

我做實驗來研究腦部各種化學物質

in the brain influence the choices we make.

如何影響我們作的決定。

I'm here to tell you the secret to successful decision-making:

我來這裡就是要告訴你們 作決定的祕密武器：

a cheese sandwich.

起司三明治。

That's right. According to scientists, a cheese sandwich

沒錯。根據科學家的研究，

is the solution to all your tough decisions.

起司三明治就是作困難決定時的最佳良伴。

How do I know? I'm the scientist who did the study.

我怎麼知道？因為我就是做這個研究的科學家。

A few years ago, my colleagues and I were interested

幾年前，我和同事們有興趣研究

in how a brain chemical called serotonin

腦內一個叫做血清素的化合物質

would influence people's decisions in social situations.

如何影響人們在社交場合作決定。

Specifically, we wanted to know how serotonin would affect

更精準地說，我們想要知道血清素如何影響

the way people react when they're treated unfairly.

人們在被不公平對待時的反應。

So we did an experiment.

所以我們做了一個實驗。

We manipulated people's serotonin levels by giving them

我們改變人體內的血清素濃度，

this really disgusting-tasting artificial lemon-flavored drink

這是透過給測試者喝 調味過的、非常難喝的檸檬口味飲料

that works by taking away the raw ingredient for serotonin

這會拿走腦中製造

in the brain.

血清素的原料。

This is the amino acid tryptophan.

這原料是叫作色氨酸的氨基酸。

So what we found was, when tryptophan was low,

我們發現，當色氨酸濃度低的時候，

people were more likely to take revenge

人們比較會在被不公平對待時報仇。

when they're treated unfairly.

人們比較會在被不公平對待時報仇。

That's the study we did, and here are some of the headlines

這是我們做的研究，而這些是

that came out afterwards.

之後出現的一些新聞標題。

("A cheese sandwich is all you need for strong decision-making")

（「你只需要一個起司三明治來做決定」）

("What a friend we have in cheeses")

（「起司是個多棒的朋友」）

("Eating Cheese and Meat May Boost Self-Control") At this point, you might be wondering, did I miss something?

（「吃起司和肉可以增強自我控制力」） 到這時候，你可能會想，我錯過什麼了嗎？

("Official! Chocolate stops you being grumpy") Cheese? Chocolate? Where did that come from?

（「科學家證實巧克力可以阻止壞脾氣」） 起司？巧克力？這些從哪來的？

And I thought the same thing myself when these came out,

這些標題出來時我也有同樣的疑問。

because our study had nothing to do with cheese or chocolate.

因為我們的研究與起司和巧克力毫不相干。

We gave people this horrible-tasting drink

我們給人們喝那個很噁心的飲料

that affected their tryptophan levels.

來影響色氨酸濃度。

But it turns out that tryptophan also happens to be found

但事實上色氨酸也存在於

in cheese and chocolate.

起司和巧克力當中。

And of course when science says cheese and chocolate

當然當科學說起司和巧克力

help you make better decisions, well, that's sure to grab people's attention.

可以幫助你做出更好的決定，嗯，這一定會引起注意。

So there you have it:

所以就是這樣：

the evolution of a headline.

標題的演變。

When this happened, a part of me thought, well,

當這樣的事情發生時，我在想，

what's the big deal?

嗯，有什麼大不了的？

So the media oversimplified a few things, but in the end,

媒體是過度簡化一些事情，但到最後，

it's just a news story.

它也只是一則新聞。

And I think a lot of scientists have this attitude.

而且我認為很多科學家都是這種態度。

But the problem is that this kind of thing happens all the time,

但問題是這種事情很常發生，

and it affects not just the stories you read in the news

且它影響的不只是你在報紙中讀到的東西，

but also the products you see on the shelves.

也影響貨架上的商品。

When the headlines rolled, what happened was,

當這樣的頭條出現時，發生的事情是

the marketers came calling.

行銷人員開始打電話來了。

Would I be willing to provide a scientific endorsement

我願不願意為一個改善情緒的飲料

of a mood-boosting bottled water?

提供科學證據呢？

Or would I go on television to demonstrate,

或我能不能上電視

in front of a live audience,

在直播現場

that comfort foods really do make you feel better?

證實滿足食物 (comfort food) 可以讓你感覺更好？

I think these folks meant well, but had I taken them up on their offers,

我覺他們的出發點是好的，但我如果答應了這些邀約

I would have been going beyond the science,

我會超出科學所能解釋的範圍，

and good scientists are careful not to do this.

而好的科學家們會盡量避免這麼做。

But nevertheless, neuroscience is turning up more and more in marketing.

但儘管如此，神經科學在行銷中越來越常出現。

Here's one example: Neuro drinks,

舉例來說： 神經飲料。

a line of products, including Nuero Bliss here,

這包括這個叫作Nuero Bliss的飲料。

which according to its label helps reduce stress,

根據它上面的說明，可以減少壓力、

enhances mood, provides focused concentration,

改善情緒、集中精神、

and promotes a positive outlook.

並提升積極態度。

I have to say, this sounds awesome. (Laughter)

我必須說，這聽起來很棒。（笑聲）

I could totally have used this 10 minutes ago.

我 10 分鐘前非常需要這個。

So when this came up in my local shop, naturally I was

所以當這個產品出現在附近的店裡時，

curious about some of the research backing these claims.

我很好奇這是根據於什麼樣的研究。

So I went to the company's website looking to find

所以我去了公司網站

some controlled trials of their products.

想要找產品的對照試驗。

But I didn't find any.

但我什麼都沒有找到。

Trial or no trial, these claims are front and center

但不論有沒有實驗依據，這樣的文字

on their label right next to a picture of a brain.

是很明顯地寫在標籤上，旁邊還放了張大腦的圖。

And it turns out that pictures of brains have special properties.

而且原來這大腦圖是有特別功用的。

A couple of researchers asked a few hundred people

幾個研究人員請數百人

to read a scientific article.

讀一篇科學文章。

For half the people, the article included a brain image,

一半的人的文章有包括大腦圖像，

and for the other half, it was the same article

另一半的人讀同一篇文章

but it didn't have a brain image.

但沒有大腦圖像。

At the end — you see where this is going —

讀完後 — 你們大概知道這是什麼了 —

people were asked whether they agreed

問受測者是否同意

with the conclusions of the article.

文章的結論。

So this is how much people agree with the conclusions

這是讀沒有圖像的那組

with no image.

同意文章結論的人數

And this is how much they agree with the same article

這是讀同一篇文章

that did include a brain image.

但有包括大腦圖像的數據。

So the take-home message here is,

所以結論是，

do you want to sell it? Put a brain on it.

如果你想要把產品賣掉，放張大腦圖。

Now let me pause here and take a moment to say that

現在讓我在這裡暫停一下來說

neuroscience has advanced a lot in the last few decades,

神經科學在過去的幾十年內進步了許多，

and we're constantly discovering amazing things

且我們仍然不斷地發現一些與大腦相關的

about the brain.

不可思議的東西。

Like, just a couple of weeks ago, neuroscientists at MIT

像是幾個星期前，麻省理工學院的神經學家

figured out how to break habits in rats

發現如何僅由控制大鼠腦內一些特定的神經活動

just by controlling neural activity in a specific part of their brain.

就可以打破大鼠的行為習慣。

Really cool stuff.

很酷的東西。

But the promise of neuroscience has led to some really

但神經科學的進步已經導致一些

high expectations and some overblown, unproven claims.

很高的期望和一些誇大、 未經驗證的論點。

So what I'm going to do is show you how to spot

所以我要做的是告訴大家如何認出

a couple of classic moves, dead giveaways, really,

一些經典的手法、

for what's variously been called neuro-bunk,

各種不同程度地「神經騙局」、

neuro-bollocks, or, my personal favorite, neuro-flapdoodle.

或稱「神經吹牛」、或我最喜歡的稱呼「神經胡說」。

So the first unproven claim is that you can use brain scans

所以第一個未被證實的論點是 你可以用大腦掃描

to read people's thoughts and emotions.

來看出人們的想法和情緒。

Here's a study published by a team of researchers

這是一組研究人員發表的研究報告，

as an op-ed in The New York Times.

用來作為紐約時報的專欄報導。

The headline? "You Love Your iPhone. Literally."

標題？「你愛你的 iPhone。真的」。

It quickly became the most emailed article on the site.

它很快地成為這個網站上最常被轉寄的文章。

So how'd they figure this out?

他們怎麼知道的呢？

They put 16 people inside a brain scanner

他們對16個人進行大腦掃描

and showed them videos of ringing iPhones.

並讓他們看正在響的 iPhone 影片。

The brain scans showed activation in a part of the brain

腦袋掃描圖顯示腦內一個

called the insula, a region they say

叫作腦島的區域被激發。

is linked to feelings of love and compassion.

他們說這個區域與愛、同情這樣的情緒有關。

So they concluded that because they saw activation in the insula,

所以他們的結論是因為他們看到腦島被激發，

this meant the subjects loved their iPhones.

這就表示受測者愛他們的 iPhone。

Now there's just one problem with this line of reasoning,

但在這樣的邏輯下有個問題，

and that's that the insula does a lot.

就是腦島做很多事情。

Sure, it is involved in positive emotions

當然它與愛、同情

like love and compassion,

這類正面的情緒有關，

but it's also involved in tons of other processes,

但它也與其他東西有關：

like memory, language, attention,

像記憶、 語言、 注意力、

even anger, disgust and pain.

甚至憤怒、 厭惡和痛感。

So based on the same logic, I could equally conclude

所以用同樣的邏輯，我同樣可以說

you hate your iPhone.

你討厭你的 iPhone。

The point here is, when you see activation in the insula,

重點是，當你看到腦島被激發時，

you can't just pick and choose your favorite explanation

你不能就只是從各種可能性中 挑出你喜歡的解釋，

from off this list, and it's a really long list.

這些可能性非常多。

My colleagues Tal Yarkoni and Russ Poldrack

我的同事 Tal Yarkoni 和 Russ Poldrack

have shown that the insula pops up in almost a third

發現腦島在近三分之一

of all brain imaging studies that have ever been published.

已發表的大腦掃描圖中是被激發的。

So chances are really, really good

所以極有可能

that your insula is going off right now,

現在你的腦島也在激發態，

but I won't kid myself

但我不會騙我自己

to think this means you love me.

想這意味著你愛我。

So speaking of love and the brain,

所以說到愛和大腦，

there's a researcher, known to some as Dr. Love,

有一個研究員，有些人稱他作愛博士。

who claims that scientists have found the glue

他聲稱科學家們已經發現

that holds society together,

可以將社會凝聚在一起的力量、

the source of love and prosperity.

愛和繁榮的來源。

This time it's not a cheese sandwich.

這次它不是一個乳酪三明治。

No, it's a hormone called oxytocin.

不，它是一種叫催產素的激素。

You've probably heard of it.

你們可能聽說過它。

So, Dr. Love bases his argument on studies showing

愛博士的研究是根據於這樣的研究：

that when you boost people's oxytocin,

當人們的催產素濃度增加時，

this increases their trust, empathy and cooperation.

這會增強他們信任、 同情和合作的能力。

So he's calling oxytocin "the moral molecule."

所以，他叫催產素「道德分子」。

Now these studies are scientifically valid,

這些研究在科學上是合理的。

and they've been replicated, but they're not the whole story.

實驗是可以被複製的。但這不是故事的全部。

Other studies have shown that boosting oxytocin

其他研究顯示提高催產素濃度

increases envy. It increases gloating.

也會促使人們忌妒、會幸災樂禍。

Oxytocin can bias people to favor their own group

催產素可以讓人以犧牲其它團體來

at the expense of other groups.

換取自己團體的利益。

And in some cases, oxytocin can even decrease cooperation.

在某些情況下，催產素甚至會降低合作能力。

So based on these studies, I could say oxytocin

所以基於這些研究，我可以說催產素

is an immoral molecule, and call myself Dr. Strangelove.

是一個不道德的分子，並稱我自己《奇愛博士》。

(Laughter)

（笑聲）

So we've seen neuro-flapdoodle all over the headlines.

我們在新聞標題上常可以看到「神經胡說」。

We see it in supermarkets, on book covers.

我們在超市、在書封面上也會看到。

What about the clinic?

那診所呢？

SPECT imaging is a brain-scanning technology

SPECT 顯像是一種利用放射性示蹤劑

that uses a radioactive tracer

的大腦掃描技術

to track blood flow in the brain.

用來測量腦中的血流量。

For the bargain price of a few thousand dollars,

用幾千元這樣很好的價錢，

there are clinics in the U.S. that will give you

你可以在美國的診所

one of these SPECT scans and use the image

作這樣的 SPECT 掃描，並使用圖像

to help diagnose your problems.

來幫助診斷你的問題。

These scans, the clinics say, can help

診所說這些掃描可以

prevent Alzheimer's disease,

防止阿茲海默症、

solve weight and addiction issues,

解決體重和上癮問題、

overcome marital conflicts,

克服婚姻衝突、

and treat, of course, a variety of mental illnesses

還有當然可以治療各種心理疾病

ranging from depression to anxiety to ADHD.

從憂鬱症到焦慮到過動症等。

This sounds great. A lot of people agree.

這聽起來很棒。很多人也同意。

Some of these clinics are pulling in tens of millions

有些這樣的診所一年可以

of dollars a year in business.

賺數千萬美金。

There's just one problem.

就只是有個問題。

The broad consensus in neuroscience

在神經科學中的共識是

is that we can't yet diagnose mental illness

是我們仍然無法從單一的腦掃描

from a single brain scan.

診斷出精神疾病。

But these clinics have treated

但這些診所已經治療了

tens of thousands of patients to date,

數以萬計的患者，

many of them children,

其中多數為兒童。

and SPECT imaging involves a radioactive injection,

但 SPECT 顯像涉及放射性注射，

so exposing people to radiation, potentially harmful.

如此暴露於輻射，可能對人體有害。

I am more excited than most people, as a neuroscientist,

作為一個神經學家，我比大多數人更相信

about the potential for neuroscience to treat mental illness

神經科學在治療精神疾病的潛力，

and even maybe to make us better and smarter.

甚至可能使我們更好、 更聰明。

And if one day we can say that cheese and chocolate

如果有一天我們可以說起司和巧克力

help us make better decisions, count me in.

可以幫我們作更好的決定，算我一個。

But we're not there yet.

但是我們還沒走到那裡。

We haven't found a "buy" button inside the brain,

我們還沒找到大腦內的「購買」按鈕。

we can't tell whether someone is lying or in love

我們無法從腦部掃描看出一個人是否在說謊

just by looking at their brain scans,

或是正墜入愛河，

and we can't turn sinners into saints with hormones.

我們無法利用激素將罪人變成聖人。

Maybe someday we will, but until then,

也許有一天我們做得到，但直到那時，

we have to be careful that we don't let overblown claims

我們必須小心我們不要讓這些誇大的聲稱

detract resources and attention away from the real science

分散真正科學的資源及心力，

that's playing a much longer game.

這是個很漫長的遊戲。

So here's where you come in.

所以這是你們可以做的：

If someone tries to sell you something with a brain on it,

如果有人試圖賣給你印有大腦的產品，

don't just take them at their word.

不要直接聽信他們的話。

Ask the tough questions. Ask to see the evidence.

問一些棘手的問題、問證據來源、

Ask for the part of the story that's not being told.

問故事中沒有讓大家知道的部份。

The answers shouldn't be simple, because the brain isn't simple.

答案不應該簡單，因為大腦並不簡單。

But that's not stopping us from trying to figure it out anyway.

但這並不會阻止我們試圖瞭解它。

Thank you. (Applause)

謝謝。（掌聲）