think about how weird human behavior is,

克里斯安德森：過去幾年，羅勃

and how inadequate most of our language trying to explain it is.

都在思考人類的行為有多怪異，

And it's very exciting to hear him explain some of the thinking behind it

以及我們試圖解釋這些行為 所用的語言有多麼不妥。

in public for the first time.

能聽到他初次公開說明 這背後的一些想法，

Over to you now, Robert Sapolsky.

是很讓人非常興奮的。

(Applause)

接下來就交給羅勃薩波斯基。

Robert Sapolsky: Thank you.

（掌聲）

The fantasy always runs something like this.

羅勃薩波斯基：謝謝。

I've overpowered his elite guard,

幻想總是像這樣的：

burst into his secret bunker

我擊敗了他的精英守衛，

with my machine gun ready.

闖入了他的秘密地下碉堡，

He lunges for his Luger.

手持隨時待發的機關槍。

I knock it out of his hand.

他衝向他的盧格手槍，

He lunges for his cyanide pill.

我把槍從他的手中擊落。

I knock that out of his hand.

他衝向他的自殺藥丸，

He snarls,

我把藥丸從他的手中擊落。

comes at me with otherworldly strength.

他咆哮起來，

We grapple, we fight,

以無比的力量衝向我。

I manage to pin him down

我們扭打起來，

and put on handcuffs.

我將他壓倒在地，

"Adolf Hitler," I say,

給他上了手銬。

"I arrest you for crimes against humanity."

我說：「阿道夫希特勒，

Here's where the Medal of Honor version of the fantasy ends

我以違反人性的罪名逮捕你。」

and the imagery darkens.

榮譽勳章版本的幻想於此結束，

What would I do if I had Hitler?

影像漸漸暗去。

It's not hard to imagine once I allow myself.

如果我抓到希特勒，我會怎麼做？

Sever his spine at the neck.

這並不難想像， 只要我允許我自己想像就可以。

Take out his eyes with a blunt instrument.

把他的脊椎從頸部切斷、

Puncture his eardrums. Cut out his tongue.

用鈍器挖出他的眼睛、

Leave him alive on a respirator,

刺穿他的耳膜、 切掉他的舌頭、

tube-fed, not able to speak or move or see or hear, just to feel,

讓他靠著呼吸器活著，

and then inject him with something cancerous

用鼻胃管餵食，不能說話、不能活動、 看不見、聽不到，只是有感覺，

that's going to fester and pustulate

然後對他注射致癌物質，

until every cell in his body is screaming in agony,

讓他身上潰爛和長膿皰，

until every second feels like an eternity in hell.

直到他身上的每一個細胞 都在痛苦地哀號，

That's what I would do to Hitler.

直到每一秒都感覺像 在地獄裡的永恆。

I've had this fantasy since I was a kid,

我會對希特勒如此做。

still do sometimes,

我從小就有這個幻想，

and when I do, my heart speeds up --

到現在仍然有時還會有。

all these plans for the most evil, wicked soul in history.

在幻想時，我的心跳加快－－

But there's a problem,

這些對史上最邪惡、惡毒的靈魂 所做的計畫。

which is I don't actually believe in souls or evil,

但是有個問題，

and I think wicked belongs in a musical.

就是我其實不相信靈魂或邪惡，

But there's some people I would like to see killed,

且我認為惡毒屬於音樂劇。 （註：Wicked 是一齣音樂劇的名字）

but I'm against the death penalty.

我樂見某些人死掉，

But I like schlocky violent movies,

但是我反對死刑。

but I'm for strict gun control.

我喜歡低成本的暴力電影，

But then there was a time I was at a laser tag place,

但是我贊成嚴格管制槍械。

and I had such a good time hiding in a corner shooting at people.

但是有一次， 我在一個玩鐳射對戰的地方，

In other words, I'm your basic confused human when it comes to violence.

我很享受躲在角落裡射擊人。

Now, as a species, we obviously have problems with violence.

換句話說，談到暴力時， 基本上我是個很困惑的人。

We use shower heads to deliver poison gas,

從整個物種的層面來看， 我們這物種顯然有暴力問題。

letters with anthrax, airplanes as weapons,

我們使用淋浴頭來噴毒氣，

mass rape as a military strategy.

用信件傳播炭疽桿菌，用飛機當武器， （註：2001 年美國有炭疽攻擊事件）

We're a miserably violent species.

以大量強暴作為軍事戰略。

But there's a complication,

我們是可悲暴力的物種。

which is we don't hate violence,

但是有個複雜的枝節，

we hate the wrong kind.

那就是我們並不憎恨暴力，

And when it's the right kind,

我們憎恨錯誤的暴力。

we cheer it on, we hand out medals,

如果暴力是正確的，

we vote for, we mate with our champions of it.

我們為它喝采，我們頒予勳章，

When it's the right kind of violence,

我們投票給他們， 我們想和當中最出類拔萃者交往。

we love it.

如果暴力是正確的，

And there's another complication,

我們喜愛它。

which is, in addition to us being this miserably violent species,

還有另一個枝節，

we're also this extraordinarily altruistic, compassionate one.

那就是，除了我們是非常暴力的物種，

So how do you make sense of the biology of our best behaviors,

我們也是極度利他、 有同理心的物種。

our worst ones and all of those ambiguously in between?

對於我們最好的行為、最不好的行為、

Now, for starters,

在兩者之間的模糊地帶的行為， 背後的生物學理論是什麼？

what's totally boring is understanding the motoric aspects of the behavior.

首先，

Your brain tells your spine, tells your muscles

去了解行為的肌肉運動面向 是非常無聊的。

to do something or other,

你的大腦告訴你的脊椎， 告訴你的肌肉，

and hooray, you've behaved.

去做某事或其他事，

What's hard is understanding the meaning of the behavior,

然後，好哇～你就做出行為了。

because in some settings, pulling a trigger is an appalling act;

困難的是了解行為的意義，

in others, it's heroically self-sacrificial.

因為在某些狀況下， 扣下扳機是個駭人的行為；

In some settings, putting your hand one someone else's

但在其他情況下， 那又是英勇自我犧牲的行為。

is deeply compassionate.

在某些狀況下， 將你的手放在別人的手上，

In others, it's a deep betrayal.

是表示深切的同情。

The challenge is to understand

但在其他情況下， 那則是很嚴重的背叛。

the biology of the context of our behaviors,

我們的挑戰是要了解

and that's real tough.

我們的行為情境背後的生物學，

One thing that's clear, though, is you're not going to get anywhere

而那是很難的。

if you think there's going to be the brain region or the hormone

但有一點很清楚，如果你認為會有

or the gene or the childhood experience

確切的大腦區域、激素、

or the evolutionary mechanism that explains everything.

基因、童年經驗

Instead, every bit of behavior has multiple levels of causality.

或進化機制能解釋一切， 那你是不會有進展的。

Let's look at an example.

反之，每個行為背後都有多重原因。

You have a gun.

我們來看一個例子。

There's a crisis going on:

你有一支槍。

rioting, violence, people running around.

有一個危機正在發生：

A stranger is running at you in an agitated state --

有群眾暴動，有人使用暴力， 人們跑來跑去。

you can't quite tell if the expression is frightened, threatening, angry --

一位陌生人很激動地跑向你——

holding something that kind of looks like a handgun.

你無法明確判斷他的表情是 害怕、威脅或生氣——

You're not sure.

他手上拿著的東西 看起來像是一把槍。

The stranger comes running at you

你不確定。

and you pull the trigger.

那個陌生人衝向你，

And it turns out that thing in this person's hand

而你扣下扳機了。

was a cell phone.

結果，這個人的手裡的東西

So we asked this biological question:

是一支手機。

what was going on that caused this behavior?

所以我們問這個生物學問題：

What caused this behavior?

是什麼導致了這種行為？

And this is a multitude of questions.

什麼導致了這種行為？

We start.

這是大哉問。

What was going on in your brain one second before you pulled that trigger?

我們開始。

And this brings us into the realm of a brain region called the amygdala.

你在扣下扳機前的一秒前， 你的腦子裡在想什麼？

The amygdala, which is central to violence, central to fear,

這就將我們帶到大腦中 被稱為杏仁核的那一區了。

initiates volleys of cascades

杏仁核是暴力和恐懼的中心，

that produce pulling of a trigger.

它會啟動一連串的反應，

What was the level of activity in your amygdala one second before?

造成你去扣扳機。

But to understand that, we have to step back a little bit.

在前一秒鐘你的杏仁核的 活動度有多高？

What was going on in the environment seconds to minutes before

但要了解這點，我們必須後退一步。

that impacted the amygdala?

在幾秒鐘、幾分鐘前， 周遭的環境中發生了哪些

Now, obviously, the sights, the sounds of the rioting,

會影響到杏仁核的事？

that was pertinent.

很顯然，是暴動的影象和聲音，

But in addition,

那是相關的。

you're more likely to mistake a cell phone for a handgun

但，此外，

if that stranger was male

如果那位陌生人是高大 且不同種族的男性，

and large and of a different race.

你比較有可能

Furthermore, if you're in pain,

將手機誤認為手槍。

if you're hungry, if you're exhausted,

再者，如果你正遭受痛苦，

your frontal cortex is not going to work as well,

如果你很飢餓，或是如果你累壞了，

part of the brain whose job it is to get to the amygdala in time

你的前額葉皮質就不會運作得很好，

saying, "Are you really sure that's a gun there?"

是腦的那一部分負責 要及時聯絡杏仁核，

But we need to step further back.

並說：「你確定那是一把槍嗎？」

Now we have to look at hours to days before,

但我們必須再退到更早以前。

and with this, we have entered the realm of hormones.

我們必須看看幾小時、幾天前，

For example, testosterone,

這就帶我們進入了激素的領域了。

where regardless of your sex,

例如，睪丸激素，

if you have elevated testosterone levels in your blood,

不管你的性別為何，

you're more likely to think a face with a neutral expression

如果你血液中的睾丸激素升高了，

is instead looking threatening.

你更有可能把表情中性的臉孔

Elevated testosterone levels, elevated levels of stress hormones,

當作具有威脅性。

and your amygdala is going to be more active

睾丸激素升高，應激激素升高，

and your frontal cortex will be more sluggish.

會讓你的杏仁核更活躍，

Pushing back further, weeks to months before,

你的前額葉皮質會更遲鈍。

where's the relevance there?

再進一步推到幾週、幾個月前，

This is the realm of neural plasticity,

這時的相關性是什麼？

the fact that your brain can change in response to experience,

有個叫神經可塑性的領域，

and if your previous months have been filled with stress and trauma,

也就是你的大腦可以 根據經驗而改變。

your amygdala will have enlarged.

如果你前幾個月的生活 充滿壓力和創傷，

The neurons will have become more excitable,

你的杏仁核會擴大。

your frontal cortex would have atrophied,

神經元會變得比較容易興奮，

all relevant to what happens in that one second.

前額葉皮質會萎縮，

But we push back even more, back years,

這些都與扣扳機的那一秒有關聯。

back, for example, to your adolescence.

但我們再向前追溯到幾年前，

Now, the central fact of the adolescent brain

比如，回到你的青春期。

is all of it is going full blast

青春期大腦的重要特色是，

except the frontal cortex,

除了前額葉皮質以外的部份，

which is still half-baked.

都是馬力全開的狀態，

It doesn't fully mature until you're around 25.

前額葉皮質尚未成熟，

And thus, adolescence and early adulthood

要到大約 25 歲時它才會完全成熟。

are the years where environment and experience sculpt your frontal cortex

因此，青春期和成年前期

into the version you're going to have as an adult in that critical moment.

是環境與經驗塑造 你的前額葉皮質的時期，

But pushing back even further,

形成你在成年後 那一關鍵時刻的前額葉皮質。

even further back to childhood and fetal life

但再向前追溯，

and all the different versions that that could come in.

回到童年和胎兒期，

Now, obviously, that's the time that your brain is being constructed,

以及可能形成的各式版本。

and that's important,

很顯然，這個時期 你的大腦正在被建造中，

but in addition, experience during those times

那很重要，

produce what are called epigenetic changes,

但除此之外，那些時期的經驗

permanent, in some cases,

會產生所謂的表觀遺傳變化，

permanently activating certain genes, turning off others.

在某些情況下，這些改變是永久性的，

And as an example of this,

會永久性地啟動某些基因、 關閉其他基因。

if as a fetus you were exposed to a lot of stress hormones through your mother,

有一個例子可以說明。

epigenetics is going to produce your amygdala in adulthood

如果在胎兒時期，你接觸到 很多來自母親的應激激素，

as a more excitable form,

表觀遺傳學會造成 你在成年期的前額葉皮質，

and you're going to have elevated stress hormone levels.

成為比較會激動的形式，

But pushing even further back,

而你也將會有較高的應激激素。

back to when you were just a fetus,

再向前追溯，

back to when all you were was a collection of genes.

回到你只是胎兒時，

Now, genes are really important to all of this,

回到你只是一堆基因時。

but critically, genes don't determine anything,

基因對這一切而言都很重要，

because genes work differently in different environments.

但關鍵是，基因不決定什麼，

Key example here:

因為在不同的環境中， 基因的運作會有所不同。

there's a variant of a gene called MAO-A,

這裡有個重要的例子：

and if you have that variant,

有一種基因變體叫做 MAO-A（單胺氧化酶 A），

you are far more likely to commit antisocial violence

如果你有那種基因，

if, and only if, you were abused as a child.

你就非常有可能會做出 反社會的暴力行為，

Genes and environment interact,

但前提是，你在孩提時被虐待過。

and what's happening in that one second before you pull that trigger

基因和環境會交互作用，

reflects your lifetime of those gene-environment interactions.

在你扣下扳機前一秒所發生的事，

Now, remarkably enough, we've got to push even further back now,

反應出的是你一生中的 基因和環境的交互作用。

back centuries.

現在，我們還要再向前追溯，

What were your ancestors up to.

回到幾世紀前。

And if, for example, they were nomadic pastoralists,

你的祖先在做什麼？

they were pastoralists,

比如，他們是遊牧的放牧者，

people living in deserts or grasslands

他們是放牧者，

with their herds of camels, cows, goats,

住在沙漠或草原的人，

odds are they would have invented what's called a culture of honor

帶著他們成群的駱駝、牛隻、山羊，

filled with warrior classes,

有可能他們發明了所謂的榮譽文化，

retributive violence, clan vendettas,

這種文化充滿了勇士階級、

and amazingly, centuries later,

懲罰式的暴力、家族世仇。

that would still be influencing the values with which you were raised.

驚人的是，幾世紀之後，

But we've got to push even further back,

那仍然會影響到養育你的價值觀。

back millions of years,

但我們還要再向回追溯，

because if we're talking about genes,

再向前數百萬年，

implicitly we're now talking about the evolution of genes.

因為如果我們要談論基因，

And what you see is, for example,

背後其實就是在談基因的演化。

patterns across different primate species.

比如，你所看見的這個，

Some of them have evolved for extremely low levels of aggression,

是跨不同靈長數物種的模式。

others have evolved in the opposite direction,

有些在演化之後的 侵略程度是極低的，

and floating there in between by every measure are humans,

其他的演化方向則恰恰相反，

once again this confused, barely defined species

而落在兩者之間的，就是人類，

that has all these potentials to go one way or the other.

這個困惑且幾乎不明確的物種，

So what has this gotten us to?

會朝哪個方向偏移都是有可能的。

Basically, what we're seeing here is,

所以這代表什麼？

if you want to understand a behavior,

基本上，我們在這裡所看到的是，

whether it's an appalling one, a wondrous one,

如果你想要了解一個行為，

or confusedly in between,

不論是駭人的行為、 令人驚奇的行為，

if you want to understand that,

或在當中模糊地帶的行為，

you've got take into account what happened a second before

如果你想了解它，

to a million years before,

你需要考量的 是從一秒前發生了什麼，

everything in between.

一直到數百萬年前發生了什麼，

So what can we conclude at this point?

中間的一切都要考量。

Officially, it's complicated.

所以，在這個時點， 我們能下什麼結論？

Wow, that's really helpful.

正式宣佈，這極為複雜。

It's complicated,

哇，這實在太有幫助。

and you'd better be real careful, real cautious

這極為複雜，

before you conclude you know what causes a behavior,

你最好要非常小心、非常謹慎，

especially if it's a behavior you're judging harshly.

不要輕易認定 你知道一個行為的成因，

Now, to me, the single most important point about all of this

特別是針對你在嚴厲評斷的行為。

is one having to do with change.

對我來說，這一切當中 最重要的一點

Every bit of biology I have mentioned here can change in different circumstances.

和改變有關。

For example, ecosystems change.

我在這裡所提到的所有生物學

Thousands of years ago, the Sahara was a lush grassland.

都有可能在不同的情況下有所改變。

Cultures change.

比如，生態系統會改變。

In the 17th century, the most terrifying people in Europe were the Swedes,

數千年前，薩哈拉沙漠是蒼翠的草原。

rampaging all over the place.

文化會改變。

This is what the Swedish military does now.

十七世紀最可怕的歐洲人是瑞典人，

They haven't had a war in 200 years.

狂暴的行為遍及各處。

Most importantly,

現在，瑞典軍隊做的是這種事。

brains change.

他們已經有兩百年沒有過戰爭了。

Neurons grow new processes.

最重要的是，

Circuits disconnect.

大腦會改變。

Everything in the brain changes,

神經元會長出新的進程，

and out of this come extraordinary examples of human change.

有些迴路會斷開，

First one:

大腦中的一切都會改變，

this is a man named John Newton,

這就造成了人類改變的非凡例子。

a British theologian

第一個例子：

who played a central role in the abolition of slavery from the British Empire