an overview of glycolysis.

and glycolysis is an incredibly

important biochemical pathway.

It occures in practically all life as we know it

and it's all about taking glucose as a fuel and,

in the process of breaking it up,

lycing the glucose, glycolysis,

breaking it up into two pyruvate molecules.

Glucose is a six carbon molecule.

Each of the pyruvates are three carbon molecules.

In the process of doing that,

you produce two ATPs net.

It actually turns out that you need to use two ATPs

and then you produce four.

So you use two ATPs.

That's often called the investment phase

and we'll talk about that in a second.

And then you produce four ATPs

for a net of

plus two ATPs

and that's what we see right over here.

You see a net of two ATPs being produced directly

by glycolysis, and then you also have

the reduction of NAD to NADH.

Remember, reduction is all about gaining electrons,

and over here, NAD, that's nicotinamide

adinine dinucleotide, we have other videos on that,

it's an interesting molecule, it's actually a

fairly decent-sized molecule, we see this

positive charge, but then we see that not only

does it gain a hydrogen, but it loses its positive charge.

It gains a hydrogen and an electron.

You can think on a net basis it's gaining

a hydride.

Now a hydride anion's not going to typically be

all by itself, but on a net basis, you can think about

that's what's happening.

And so it's gaining a hydrogen and an extra electron

and so this, the NAD+, this is going to get reduced.

That is going to get reduced to NADH.

So this is getting reduced to NADH.

And that NADH, it can then

be oxidized in the electron transport chain.

We'll study that later on when we think about

oxidative phosphorylation, to produce

even more ATPs.

But on a very high-level, simple basis.

Glucose being broken down in pyruvate,

six carbons, three carbons each of these

pyruvates, now there's other things attached

to the carbons, and we'll see that in a little bit.

Two ATPs net generated, and you have the reduction

of two NADs to two NADHs, and those can be used

later on to produce more ATPs.

Now, glycolysis is typically just the beginning

of cellular respiration.

If oxygen is around, then you have these products,

some of these moving into the mitochondria

where you can have the citric acid cycle,

Krebs cycle, and the oxidative phosphorylation occur.

If you don't have oxygen around, then you're

going to do anaerobic respiration, or you're

going to go into fermentation.

We'll talk about that in a future video, and that's

really about figuring out what to do with these

products, and especially replenishing your NAD+.

Now that we have a very high-level overview

of glycolysis, let's get a better appreciation

for exactly what's going on.

And whenever I look at these more detailed

processes, the one thing to just appreciate

is how much complexity is occurring

in all of your cells right now.

This is fairly abstract,

to even imagine these things, but this

is happening throughout your body

gazillions of times, right now.

This isn't something that is somehow

distant from you.

And it's also fun to appreciate, well how

all of this was discovered by scientists.

That's a whole other fascinating discussion.

But the whole point of this video is just to

give us an appreciation for the actual mechanism

or the reaction by which it occurs.

I'm not gonna go into the detailed

organic chemistry mechanism.

So over here, this is a glucose molecule over here,

you see one, two, three, four, five, six carbons.

And then the first step is, it gets phosphorylated

and we have a whole video on the phosphorylation

of glucose, and all of these steps are facilitated

with enzymes.

The phosphorylation is facilitated with the hexokinase.

Kinase is a general term for an enzyme

that either facilitates phosphorylation or

dephosphorylates, it's dealing with

phosphorylation, I guess you could say.

And enzymes are all about lowering

the activation energy.

And the way that hexokinases do, or part of

how they do it, is they involve the cofactor,

a magnesium ion.

And we've talked about that in other videos,

how cofactors can help an enzyme lower the

activation energy.

And to do the phosphorylation, we use an ATP.

So this is minus one ATP.

So we are in the investment phase.

But this reaction strongly goes from

left to right, it's a coupled reaction that,

phosphorylating the glucose, that

requires free energy, but the ATP releases free energy

you couple these reactions, it strongly goes from

left to right.

Now, and just to be clear what happened,

this over here got replaced, or maybe

I should say this over here got replaced

with that over there.

Just to keep track of what's happening.

Now, another enzyme-catalyzed reaction,

this one is actually an equilibrium, it can

go both ways, but as we'll see, the right

side or the things that are further into the

glycolysis process, these are constantly

being turned into further products, so their

concentrations are going to go down, and so

the reaction will tend to go that way.

Although this particular reaction, going from

glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate,

this could be an equilibrium.

But the enzyme that facilitates this,

phosphoglucose isomerase, these are

enzymes that help go from one isomer of

a molecule to another isomer.

And that's what's happening here.

Instead of this oxygen being bound to this carbon,

this bond forms with this carbon.

So you have fructose, you have the five-carbon

ring over here, or you have the five-element

ring, you have four carbons in it,

versus a six-element ring where right over here

you have five carbons.

So this bond goes to this carbon right over here

and that's the main difference.

And then you have another, very strong

forward reaction, once again facilitated

by ATP, and this is done by phosphofructokinase.

It has the word kinase in it.

And it's using up the ATP, you can guess

what's going to happen.

We're going to attach another phosphate

group to the fructose 6-phosphate, and now

you have two of these phosphate groups.

So this hydrogen right over here is now

replaced with another phosphate group.

And once again it's facilitated by the

magnesium cofactor, it helps stabilize

some of the negative charge associated with

the phosphate groups, we talk about that in other videos.

But the important thing is, it uses another ATP.

We're still in the investment phase,

negative one ATP.

And every time I look at this it's just fascinating

that all of this stuff is happening in your cells

as we speak.

In fact, in order for me to speak this has to happen,

because my body needs to take glucose and come up

with some energy to turn into ATPs so that my muscles

can actually move and I can actually inhale and exhale

and all the things that I need to do for speech.

So appreciate what's going on over here.

Now the next step we talk about, the whole

process of glycolysis is lysing glucose.

And over here this is derived from

glucose and some phosphates, and the

next step, we're actually going to break it up.

And we're going to break it up using the enzyme

fructose biphosphate aldolase.

Aldolase enzymes facilitate the aldol reaction.

And this one, the aldol reaction could be

to merge two molecules or in this case,

we're going to break them up.

And we break them up into two three-carbon chains.

Now these two three-carbon chains,

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, and this character

right over here, they can be converted between

the two with another isomerase, this

triosephosphate isomerase right over here.

So at this point in glycloysis, we can think of ourselves

as really having two of these.

So let's say two times glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

So as we go further on, just imagining

this happening twice for every glucose molecule.

And any time you get confused, I encourage you

to pause the video.

See how these pieces and these pieces

put together, can form that over there.

So now we have another reaction,

it's facilitated by a dehydrogenase.

Dehydrogenases usually are involved in

this case, this is the reduction of NAD.

We saw that in the overview video.

So NAD is being reduced.

And this can be used, this NADH later on

can be used in the electron transport chain

to potentially produce some more ATP,

but in that process we also add

another phosphate group to the

glyceraladehyde 3-phosphate.

So you see this phosphate group

right over here that wasn't there before.

And actually this right over here is

I should have arrows on both sides,

this right over here, that reaction

could actually go both directions.

Actually, that reaction can as well.

And then, we are now

going to be in the payoff phase.

So this right over here, we're starting

with this molecule that has these

two phosphate groups, and then

using the phosphoglycerate kinase, we're

able to pop one of those phosphate groups off

and in the process, produce ATP.

Now we might want to say plus one ATP,

but we have to remember, this is now

happening twice.

Cuz we had two of those glyceraldehyde 3-phosphates,

so now we could say, if we're talking about

this happening twice, plus two ATPs.

We are now in the payoff phase.

Then you have, facilitated by the

phosphoglycerate mutase, a mutase is a

class of isomerases.

I have trouble saying that.

That'll take a functional group from one place

to another, or take one part of a molecule

to another part, and you see this phosphate group

moving on from this carbon to the middle carbon.

And so that's what that's doing.

Then we use an enloase to get over here

and then the pyruvate kinase, and here

the kinase is going to be used to

dephosphorylate this molecule right over here,

and it gets us to the way I've drawn it is

pyruvic acid, since I've drawn the hydrogen here,

and if the hydrogen is let go and this oxygen

hogs the electron, we would call this pyruvate.

And this is considered to be the end of,

I guess you could say, mainstream glycolysis.

But what happened, and I don't want to

glaze over what happened over here,

this ADP got converted to another ATP, but it's