Pythont程式（Python Tutorial - Python for Beginners [Full Course]）

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Hi, my name is Mosh, and I'm going to be your instructor in this Python course.
In this course, you're going to learn everything you need to get started programming in Python.
Python is one of the most popular programming languages, and every day people use it to do
cool things like automation, they use it in AI, as well as
building applications and websites like Instagram and Dropbox. So if you're looking
for a job, Python is for you. In this course I'm going to teach you everything
you need to get started with Python. We're going to talk about all the core concepts
in Python, and then we're going to build three Python projects together.
Here's the first project we're going to build. We're going to learn how to create this beautiful website
for an imaginary grocery store. Here on the homepage we can see all
of the products in the shop, and we also have an admin area for managing the
stock. We're going to build this using a popular Python framework called Django.
Now if you have never built a website before, don't worry, I will teach you everything from scratch.
You're also going to learn how to use Python in machine learning, or artificial intelligence.
So you will learn how to write a Python programming that will predict
the music that people like based on their profile. Just like how YouTube
recommends videos based on the videos you have watched before. I will also show you
python to automate boring repetitive tasks that waste your time.
You will write a Python program that will process thousands of spreadsheets
in under a second. I've designed this Python course for anyone who wants to learn
Python. If you're a beginner, don't worry, I will hold your hand through this entire course.
You're not too old or too young, and Python is super easy to learn. You can write your first
Python program in literally seconds. Plus I'm going to give you plenty
of exercises to help you build your confidence writing cool Python programs.
My name is Mosh, I'm a software engineer with two decades of experience
and I've taught over 3 million people how to code. I'm super excited to be teaching you
Python in this course. So I hope you stick around and learn this beautiful
powerful programming language.
In this tutorial I'm going to show you how to download
and install Python on your computer. So the first thing I want you to do,
is open up your browser and head over to Python
.org. On this page click on downloads,
here you can see the latest version of Python currently, at the time of recording this video
the latest version is python 3.7.2.
Chances are in the future, when you are watching this tutorial, there is a newer
version of Python available, don't worry, all the materials you're going to learn in this course
will apply to the latest version of Python as well. So let's go ahead
and download Python 3, alright now,
look at your downloads folder, here, we should have Python 3 installer
simply double click that, if you're on Windows
you're going to see this check box here, add Python to
python, this is really important, make sure to tick this box, otherwise you're not going to be able to
follow this tutorial. If you're on a Mac,
you're going to see an installer like this, with this setup wizard we're going to install Python 3
on our computer. So simply click continue, and again,
and again, and agree with the license agreement, and
install it, this is going to take a few seconds so I'm going
to pause the recording.
Alright, we have successfully installed Python 3 on our computer.
Let's close this. Alright, next we need to install
a code editor, we se a code editor to write our code, just like
how we use Microsoft Word to write documents, we use a code editor to write
code. Now there are so many code editors out there, the one that I'm going to show you in this
tutorial is PyCharm. That is one of the most popular code editors
for writing Python code. You can get it from jetbrains.com
/pycharm. Now more accurately pycharm
is considered an IDE, which is short for integrated development
environment. And that's basically a code editor on steroids,
it has some additional features that makes it really easy to write code. So
let's go ahead and download PyCharm. Now here on the
download page, you can see two versions of PyCharm, one is the professional addition
which has additional features and you have to pay for them. The other is the
community edition, that is absolutely free, and that's what we're going to use in this tutorial.
So, go ahead and download this as well.
Now, once again look at your downloads folder, once again you should have pycharm
so double click this, now if you're
in Windows you're going to see an installation wizard, simply click next, next, next
until you install pycharm. If you're on Mac you need to drag and drop this icon
onto the applications folder, so drag and drop,
alright, now let's double click this to run it,
the first time we run pycharm we're going to get this warning, because this is an application
that we download from the internet. So let's go ahead and open it,
next you're going to see this dialogue box for importing some settings, leave this to
do not import settings, it doesn't really matter. Okay,
On this page, select I've never used PyCharm you can see some keyword
shortcuts that might be useful in the future, just accept this, and down at the bottom,
click the next button. And then next again,
one more time, and then finally start using pycharm.
So here's the main page of PyCharm every time you open
it, click on create new project,
this is the location for our project, let's call our project Hello
World. Now before click and create, expand
this item here, make sure that base interpreter is set to Python
3. Python interpreter is basically a program
that knows how to execute Python code, it will know how to interpret
or translate Python instructions into instructions a computer can understand.
Now, Mac computers, by default come with an older
installation of Python, that's Python 2, it's considered legacy
which means it's no longer maintained or supported. So earlier we downloaded
Python 3, make sure that this is set to Python 3, if not
from this list, select Python 3.7.
Alright, now let's go ahead and create this project,
Now here right click on
Hello World folder and go to new
Python file, call this file app.py.
So by convention, all Python files should have this
py extension. Alright, let's go ahead,
now let's collapse this project panel by clicking here and write our
first python program. Simply type print, pr
int, all in lowercase, open and close parenthesis,
and inside these parenthesis, add quotations we
can either use single quotes or double quotes, now
in between the codes write your name. I am Mosh Hamedani, so
here, so this is your first Python programming. With these piece of code
you can print your name on the screen. Now to run this, go
on the top, under the run menu, click run,
also note that there is a shortcut associated with this command, when
I program I always use shortcuts because that increases my productivity.
So here on a Mac computer, the shortcut is control, option, and
R. On Windows it's different. So let's do that, now
it's asking where you want to run this, click on app,
down below, you should see this little terminal window, this
is a little window into our program, so here you can see our results for
output for our program. In the future as you learn more Python, you'll be
able to build applications that have a graphical user interface, or gooey.
That is a little bit complicated, so for now we're going to use this little
terminal window to see the results of our program. So as you can see my name is
printed here, now as you print code, this window might get in the way so
always resize it or minimize itty putting this
icon here, so this was our first python program. Now
if you didn't see the result I showed you in this video, use the comment box below and
tell me what error you encountered, I'll do my best to help you move forward.
In this Python tutorial, we're gong to take this program to the next level and make it more interesting.
So I'm going to show you how to draw a dog hair. Now as part of
this tutorial you will learn how Python code gets executed and you will also learn
about a few programming terms. So press enter, and
on line 2 write another print statement, so print, open and close
parenthesis, add a quotation, now here you want to draw a dog.
So, add an o, that is the head of our dog, followed by
4 hyphens. So this is the body.
alright, now one more time another print statement with
quotations, now we need to draw the legs. So add a space.
Follow it by 4 vertical bars. So, like this,
so here's a little imaginary dot. Now let's
run this program and see what we get. So on the top right corner you should see this play button,
click that, there you go, so we have our name and
right below that we have our imaginary dog. Now what you need to understand
here, is that our python code gets executed line by line
from the top. So earlier I told you about Python interpreter
that is the program that knows how to translate or interpret
our Python code into instructions that a computer can understand.
So when we run this program by clicking this program here,
python interpreter starts executing or running our program
line by line from the top. So first it executes line 1,
then, moves onto line 2, and so on. So this is how python
programs get executed. Now let me show you something cool. Let's add
another print statement, with quotations now
in between the quotations, add a star or an asterisk, like
this. Now after the quotation and before the parenthesis,
add a space, once again, add an asterisk,
space, 10. What is going on here? Well,
anywhere we have quotations like here or here
we're defining a string, a string is a programming term which means
a series of characters so here we have a string, we also have
a string on line 3, as well as line 2 and line 1.
Now here, we're multiplying the string by
number 10. So this is the multiplication operator, just like the multiplication
operator we have in math. So with this piece of code we can
draw 10 asterisks on the terminal, let me show you. So let's run this
program one more time, there you go. So we have 10
asterisks. Now what we have here, this piece of code here,
is called an expression. An expression is a piece of
code that produces a value. So when Python interpreter
tries to execute line 4, first it will evaluate
the code that we put in between parenthesis, so we could evaluate our expressions
Our expression will produce 10 asterisks and then
those asterisks will be printed on the terminal. Now as an exercise
you can use these print statements to draw another shape, you can draw a heart, a
ball, whatever you like. I will see you in the next tutorial.
One of the questions I get a lot on my channel is
how long does it take to learn Python and become job ready? Well there is no single
answer. It really depends on you and how much effort and commitment you want to put
into this. But I would say if you spend 2 hours every day
consistently, after about 3 months you should be able to write
basic python programs, but quite honestly, that doesn't get you a job.
In order to get a job, you need to specialize in one area,
what do you want to use python for? Do you want to build web applications or
desktop applications? Or do you want to use it in machine learning and artificial intelligence?
So whatever you want to do you need to take additional courses.
For example if you want to become a web developer in addition to learning
Python, you should also learn about html, some css, some
JavaScript and Django which is a popular Python framework
for building web applications. Learning all these things would take you another
6 months, so in total you need 9-12 months to become
job ready. At that point you can get a junior developer job with a
salary of about 50-60 thousand dollars a year. Now as you work more
as you do more Python projects, your resume starts to build and
you can ask for $100,000 a year, or 120,000 dollars
a year, depending on where you are, what company, what geographical area,
it really depends, there is no single answer. So are you excited to
learn Python and get started on this career path? If you are, I would encourage you
to make a commitment and spend 2 hours every day practicing
python. And use the comment box below and let me know why you are learning
Python, what do you want to do with it? What's your dream job? I would love to hear your story.
In this Python tutorial, you're going to learn about variables, which are one of the most fundamental
concepts in programming, they're not specific to Python, they exist
in pretty much every programming language out there. We use variables
to temporarily store data in a computer's memory. Here's an example,
let's type price = 10, when Python
interpreter executes this code, it will allocate some memory, then it will store
the number 10 in that memory, and finally it will attach this
price label in that memory location. As a metahor
imagine we have a box. In that box, we have number 10
and price is the label that we put on the box. Now we can use this label
anywhere in our program to access the value that we have in that box.
This is a very simplified explanation. So now, let's
print price on the terminal. Print, now this time we're not going to
add quotations, because if we put quotations here, we will see the text
price on the terminal. Now the value of the price variable.
So, put it in quotations, and type price,
now, let's run this program one more time, there you go. So we see 10,
on the terminal. So this is how we define variables, we
start with an identifier which is the name of our variable, then,
an equal sign and finally a value. Now more accurately, when
this number 10 is about to be stored in the memory, first it will
get converted to this binary for presentation. So this number 10,
is in the decimal system which has all the digits from 0 to 9.
Computers don't understand all these digits, they only understand
0s and 1s. So when we store the number 10 in the computer's memory
first it will get converted to it's binary representation which will be
a bunch of 0's and 1's, like 001, 001, whatever
I don't know. Then it will get stored in the computer's memory. So,
let's take this program to the next level. On the second line we can
update the value of this price variable, so we can reset it
to a new value like 20, now when we run our program,
we should see 20, because as I told you before Python interpreter executes our
code line by line from the top. So first we set
the price to 10, then we reset it to 20, and finally we
print it on the terminal, let's run the terminal, there you go, so,
we see 20 here, okay? Now these
numbers that we have here are whole numbers without a decimal point.
In programming, we refer to these numbers as integers.
But integer is a number without a decimal point. We can also use
numbers with a decimal point for example on line 2, we can define
another variable called rating and set it to number
4.9. Now in programming, we refer to this kind of number as
a floating point number of float for short. So we have integers
and floats. We can also define a variable and set
it to a string, for example, name equals
Mosh, we also have another kind of value which is called boolean,
which can be true or false. They are line yes and no in English.
Here is an example, I'm going to define a variable, is underline
published so we use an underscore to separate
multiple words in our variables name. We set this to
true, or false. These are
boolean values. now note that Python is a case
sensitive language, which means it's sensitive to lower case and upper case letters.
So when defining variables we should always use
lowercase letters, but here false and true are special keywords in the
language, so if we spell it with a lowercase f, Python doesn't
understand it. You can see we have a red underline here, which indicates an error.
Make sure to spell this with a capital F, or if you want to set this to true,
make sure the T is capital, so in this
program, you're storing simple values in our computer's memory. Simple
values can be numbers, which can be integers or floats
or they can be strings or booleans. But in Python
we can also store complex values like lists and values. And that's what I'm going to show you
in the future. So before going any further, I want you
to do a little exercise. Imagine we're going to write a program for a hospital.
So we check on a patient named John Smith. He's
20 years old and is a new patient. I want you to define 3 variables here,
for his name, his age, and another variable
for if this is a new or an existing patient. So pause the video and spend one
minute on this exercise. When you're done, come back, continue and see my solution.
Alright, so here we need
three variables, the first one is the patient's name,
we set that to John Smith. We can also
call this full name, these are both valid names for our variables.
The second variable is for the age of our patient. So age
is 20, and finally we need a variable to tell if this is a new
or existing patient. That's where we can use a boolean value.
So, we define a variable, is new and
we set it to true.
So, you have learned how to print
messages on the terminal window. In this tutorial, I'm going to show you how to
receive input from the user. So we're going to write a small program that asks
the user's name and then we'll print a greeting message customized
for that user. So instead of print we're going to use
input. Now both these input and print
are functions that are built into Python. As a metaphor think
of the remote control of the TV. On this remote control we have a bunch of
buttons, these are the functions built into your tv, you can turn it on,
turn it off, change the volume and so on. In Python we also have
functions for common tasks such as printing messages, receiving input,
and so on. So we're going to use the input function, now whenever we
have these parenthesis, we're going to say we're calling or executing
that function, it's like pressing a button on a remote control. So we're
going to call the input function and in between parenthesis
we want to add a string to print something on the terminal,
what is your name? With a question mark followed by
a space. You will see why in a second. So this input function
will print this message on the terminal, and then it will wait for the user to
enter a value. Whatever the user enters this input function will
return. So now we can get that value and store it in the memory using a variable.
So we get the result and put it in a variable called
name. Okay? Now on the second line
we want to print a message like Hi John or Hi Mosh or whatever, so,
print, quotations Hi with a space,
now after the quotation we want to dynamically print
what we have in the name variable. So we had
a plus sign and then name. So here we have
Hi which is a string, we're concatenating or
combining the string with another string, that is what we have
in the name variable. So here's another example of
an expression. Remember what is an expression? It's a piece of code that
uses a value. So this expression concatenates or combines
2 strings. Let's run this program and see what happens. So run
okay, here is a question, what is your name? Mosh,
now note that earlier we added a space after the question mark, we
did this, so here in the terminal window the cursor is
separated from the question mark, otherwise it would be so close. So let's type
whatever here, plus enter, now we get this message, Hi, Mosh.
Now here's a little exercise for you. I want you to extend this program
and ask two questions. First all the person's name and then
their favorite color. And then print a message like Mosh likes
blue. So pause the video, do this exercise and then come back and continue watching.
Alright, so here's the first question right after that,
all the input functions one more time, this time we're going to ask a different question.
What is your favorite color?
Now, we get the new value and store it in the variable
called color, or you could call it favorite underline.
color. Either works. And finally we're going to change
what we pass to the print function, so first we print the name
then we concatenate this with a string, here we're going to
type likes, we also put one space before and
after likes, and once again we concatenate this.
With the favorite color. So, favorite color,
now let's run this program, so what is your name
Mosh enter, favorite color, blue, enter,
we get this message, Mosh likes blue.
Hey guys Mosh here, I just wanted to let you know that
you really don't have to memorize anything in this course because I've put together a cheat sheet
with summary notes. So you can quickly review the materials in this course.
The link is below this video. So I have done my best to create
the best possible Python course on Youtube. And I really appreciate
it if you support my hard work by liking this video and sharing it with
others, so they can learn as well. And be sure to subscribe to my channel, for more
tutorials like this. Alright, now, let's move onto the next tutorial.
In this Python tutorial, we're going to write a program that will ask the year that we were born
in, and then it will calculate our age and print it on the terminal.
So, let's start with our input function, input
let's print birth here, followed by a colon,
and a space. Now let's get the return value and store it in a variable,
called birth_year.
So as I told you before, we use an underscore to separate multiple words
Next, we need to calculate the age, so we define another
variable called age, and here we do some basic math,
currently we are in 2019, so let's write an expression
like this. 2019 - birth
year. Now finally let's print
age on the terminal. Let's run our program and see what happens.
So, my birth year is 1982, enter,
oops, we got an error, what is going on here? So
whenever you see this message, that means there is something wrong with your program. With the information
here, we can find exactly where the error occurred. So,
next to the file you can see the file that generated this error, in this case
that is app.py. So
currently our program only has a single file, but real complex programs often
have hundreds or even thousands of files. So in this file,
on line 2, this is where we got this error, and right
below that we can see the piece of code that generated this error.
So that is where we're calculating the age, and right below
that you can see the type of error. In this case, we have a type error, and here's the
message. Unsupported operand types for
subtraction. Int and str.
So int is short for integer and that represents a whole number
and str is short for string, so here we're subtracting
a string from an integer, and Python doesn't know what to do with it.
Let me explain. So I'm going to close the terminal window. So after
the first line we executed we have this birth year variable set
to a string, so whatever we type in the terminal is always
treated as a string, even if you type the number, in other words,
when we run this program, this birth year variable will be set
to a string, with four characters.
1982. This string is different from the actual number
1982. One is an integer and the other is a string.
Right? So, back to line 2, where this
error occurred. At run time, which means when we run our program
this expression on the right side of the assignment operator
is going to look like this. 2019 -
string 1982. Python doesn't know how to
interpret or how to evaluate this expression. To fix this problem
we need to convert this 1982 into an integer
and then we'll be able to subtract it from 2019 and that
is easy. So far you have learned about two built in functions
one is print the other is input. We have a few other functions
for converting values into different types. So we have
int for converting a string into an integer, we also have
float for converting a string into a float, or a number
with a decimal point. And we also have bool for converting a string
into a boolean value. So to fix this problem,
we need to go back on line 2,
and pass this birth year variable to the int function like this.
int parenthesis, like this
so we pass this string to the int function, int will convert it into an itneger
and then Python interpreter will be able to evaluate this expression.
Now let's run this program one more time, so birth
year is 1982 enter so I am
37 years old. In Python we have a useful function
for getting the type of variables, for example, let's print the type
of birth year, so right after line 1,
let's print, now here we're going to call another built in function,
called type, and now let's pass birth
year, okay, now similarly after line
3, let's also print the type of age, so
print type of age.
Okay? So let's run our program, so birth year one more
time, 1982, okay, here's the result
so the type of birth year as you can see is a class
of str or strings, we look at classes in the future so
for now don't worry about them, and also below them you cans ee the type of
the age variable is int or integer. So
here's what you need to take away. Whenever you use the input function,
you always get a string, so if you're expecting a numerical value
you should always convert that string into an integer or
a float. So here's a little exercise for you. I want you to write a program
ask the user their weight and then convert it to kilograms and print it
on a terminal. So pause the video, do the exercise and when you're ready come back
to watch it.
Alright so let's use our input function and ask
for the weight in pounds
here we get the weight in lbs or pounds
now we need to convert this into kilograms, it's very easy so
we defined another variable weight_kg
we set this to weight_lbs
times 0.45.
And finally let's print weight underline
kg. Let's run this Python program and see what happens. So
my weight is 160, alright once again we got an error,
can't multiply sequence by non int of type
float. So as I told you before, this input function returns
a string, so we cannot multiply a string by a float.
Python doesn't know what to do with it. So in this case, we should convert this number
by an integer or float and then multiply by 0.45.
So let's call the int function.
And pass weight underline lbs.
And run our program one more time, 160
okay, so I am 72 kg's.
In this tutorial, you're going to learn more about Python strings.
So I've defined this course variable and set it to Python for beginners
now earlier I told you you could use both single and double quotes
to define a string, but there are times you have to use a specific form,
otherwise you're going to run into issues. Here's an example. Imagine you wanted to
change this string into Pythons course for Beginners.
So we want to add an apostrophe, like this,
Course for Beginners. You can immediately say this is going
crazy, because our string starts here and then terminates here,
all these characters that we have here after the second apostrophe
Python interpreter doesn't know what they are. So to solve this problem
we need to use double quotes to define our string so we can have
a single quote in the middle of the string. So let's change this
to double quotes, now you can see it adds another double quote to close it,
you have to manually remove this, and also one more time
at the beginning of the string, we need to add another double quote. Now
you can see error is gone, so if you print course
we see Python course for beginners.
Beautiful. Now let's say we don't want this apostrophe here, so we have
Python for Beginners, but we want to put Beginners in
double quotes. Once again, if you add a double quote here Python interpreter gets
confused because it assumes the second double quote indicates that
end of the string, so it doesn't know what these characters are, so to solve this
we need to change our double quotes to single quotes
like this. And then we can add double quotes in the middle
of the string. Now let's run this program, there you go.
So we get Python for Beginners. So these are the cases
for using single or double quotes. Now in all the examples
I've shown you so far we only deal with short strings, but what if you wanted to define
a string that is multiple lengths? For example, what if you wanted to define a string
for the message that we send in an email. In that case we need to use
triple quotes. So. We delete this.
Now we add three quotes, so 1, 2, 3, there you go,
So, we have three quotes to start our string and three
to terminate it. Again these quotes can be single or double quotes.
Okay? Now, with this we can define a string that spans
multiple lines. For example, we can say Hi Jon
here is our first email to you. Thank you,
The Support Team. Like that.
Now, let's run this program and here's the
result. So, we get this beautiful multi line
string. Now let's change this back to something simple
so, we can look at other characteristics of strings and Python.
So I'm going to use single quotes and set the course name to Python
for Beginners. Now here we're going to use square
brackets to get a character and a given index in this string.
Let me show you. So to get the first character we use square brackets
and type 0. So the index of the first character
in the string is 0. In other words, this is how Python
strings are indexed. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
So the index of the first character is 0, the second character is
1, and so on. So let me delete this and run this program
we get p. We can also use a negative
index here. And this is one of the features that we don't have in other programming languages
as far as I know. So we have negative index we can get the characters
started from the end. So if I pass negative 1 here,
Assuming that 0 is the index of the first character
negative 1 is the index of the last character. So when we run
this program we should see s. Let's run it, there you go,
we get s, if we pass negative 2, this will return
the second character from the end. Let's run it one more time,
now we get R because that is the second character from the end.
Okay? So place close attention to this square brackets syntax
because quite often it's the topic for online Python tests
or university exams, so if you're preparing for a python test,
make sure to watch this tutorial one more time and understand exactly how
this square brackets syntax works, we can also use a similar
syntax to extract a few characters instead of 1 character.
For example, if we type 0,
colon 3, Python interpreter will return all the characters
starting with this index all the way to this
second index, but it does not return the character at this index.
In other words, back to these indexes
so you have 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. When you run this program.
Python interpreter will return the characters starting from the
index 0 all the way to index 3,
but excludes the character and index 3,
so when we run this Python program we're going to see pint (?). Let me show you, so we're going to
delete this line, run this program, there you go.
We get pint. Now here we also have default values for
the start and end index. So if we don't supply
the end index, Python will return all the characters to the end of the string.
Let's take a look. So run this program, there you go,
Python for Beginners. But if you change the start index to 1,
this will exclude the first character so when we
run this program, we see ython so p is removed.
Okay? Now similarly we have a default value for the
start index, so if we don't supply the start index
but add an end index like 5. Python interpreter will assume
0 as the start index, so, let's run
this program, there you go, we get pytho.
Now what if we leave both the start and end
index? Well, I told you? Now in this case 0 will be assumed
as the start index, and the length of the string will assume
as the end index. So with this syntax, you can basically copy
or clone a string. In other words, if I define
another variable here, let's call it another and set it to course
square brackets with just a colon, now this expression will
return all the characters in the course variable so
variable will be copy of our first variable. Let's take a look, so,
let's print another, and load our
program there you go, we get Python for beginners. So once again
the square bracket syntax is pretty important if you're preparing for online
python tests, or college exams, make sure to watch this tutorial again.
Now here's a little exercise for you. I'm going to delete all this code
define a variable, called name, and set it to Jennifer.
Now when we print name
of 1: negative 1
what do you think we're going to see on the terminal? I want you to use your knowledge
to tell what we're going to see on the terminal, we're now running this program. So
pause the video, think about it for a few seconds, then come back and continue watching.
So this expression will return the characters starting from
index 1 which is the second character
all the way to the first character from the end, but excluding
the character at this index. In this case, the first character from the
in is r, so r will be excluded, in other words we're going to see
all the characters starting from e all the way
to the second e. Let's take a look. So I'm going to run this program
there you go. This is what we get,
I hope you guessed it right.
In this tutorial, we're going to look at
formatted strings in Python programming language. Formatted strings are
particularly useful in situations where you dynamically generate some
text with your variables. Let me show you. Let's say we have two variables
first name and last name. So first we set this to
John, and last we set this to Smith. Now it's better
to call these variables first name and last name, because they're more
descriptive. But here I'm using shorter names because I want you to see the entire code on display
screen. So let's say with these two variables, we want to generate
some text like this. Jon, in square brackets
Smith is a coder. Let's say we want to print this on
the terminal. How do we do this? Well, we define another variable
like message, now here we add the first name,
now we need to concatenate this, with a string that contains a space
and a square bracket next we need to add a last name,
then we need to add a string that contains
the closing square brackets followed by is a coder
okay? So, then,
if you print message and run this program
to see John Smith is a coder, right? Now,
while this approach perfectly works, it's not ideal
because as our text gets more complicated it becomes harder to
visualize the output. So someone else reading this code, they have to
visualize all the string concatenations in their head. This is where we use
formatted strings, they make it easier for us to visualize the output. So,
I'm going to define another variable, let's say
msg short for message, and set this to a formatted string. A formatted
string is one that is prefixed with an f. So f,
quotes. Now in between the quotes, first we want to add
the value of the first name variable, so,
we add curly braces and here we type first.
Next we add a space, we add our square brackets, in between the square
brackets, we want to display the last name so once again we add curly
braces, and type last, and finally here we type
is a coder. So this is what we call the formatted
string. With these curly braces, we're defining place holders
or holes in our string, and when we run our program these holes
will be filled with the value of our variables. So here we have two place holders
or two holes in our string. One is for the value of our first name
variable and the other is for the value of the last name variable.
But compare this formatted string with string
concatenation. With this formatted string we can easily visualize
what the output looks like, right? Now let's print this other
terminal to make sure we get the same exact output. So, let's print message
there you go. So Jon
Smith is a coder. So to define formatted strings,
prefix your strings with an F and then use curly braces
to dynamically insert values into your strings.
In this Python tutorial, I'm going to show you some really cool things you can do with Python
strings. So let's start by defining a variable,
course and we set that to Python for
beginners. Now to calculate the number
of characters in this string, you can use a built in function called len.
So len we give it this course variable, and then,
we can print the result. Let's run this program,
so as you can see we have 20 characters in this string, this is
particularly useful when you receive input from the user. For example you have
noticed that when you fill out a form online, each input field
often has a limit. For example, you might have 50 characters for your name,
so using this len function we can enforce a limit on the number of characters
in an input field. If the user types in more characters than we allow,
we can display an error, now, this,
len function is another function built into Python, it's
a general purpose function, so it's not limited to counting the number of characters in a
string, in the future when we look at lists, I want to show you that we can use this
function to count the number of items in a list. So it's a general purpose
function. Now we also have functions specifically for strings
for example we have functions for converting all these characters to upper case
or lower case. To access these functions we use the dot operator.
let me show you. So first we type course,
then dot look these are all the functions
that are specific to strings. Now in more accurate terms,
you refer to these function as methods, this is a term
in object oriented programming that we want to look at in the future, but for now, what I want you to take away,
is that when a function belongs to something else, or is specific
to some kind of object, we refer to that function as a method.
For example, here we have this function, upper, for converting the string
into upper case, now more accurately because this function
is specific to a string, we refer to this as a method. In contrast
len and print are general purpose functions, they don't belong
to strings or numbers or other kinds of objects.
So this is the difference between functions and methods. Now let's take look at this
upper method. So, let's print the results
and we run our program, there you go,
you get all these characters displayed in uppercase. Now note this method
does not change or modify our original string, in fact
it creates a new string and returns it. So,
if we print our course variable right after we
call the upper method, we can see that our course variable still
has it's original form, so let's run this program one more time, there you
go. Look, here is our original course variable, it's not modified.
Now similar to the upper method we have another method
for converting a string into lower case. So let me show you.
Print, course.lower.
Now, let's run the program, so on the second line you can see,
all characters are in lower case. Now there are times
that you want to find a character or a sequence of characters in a string.
In those situations you can use the find method. So let me delete
these few lines. Call course.
find here we pass a character, let's say
p, and this will return the index of the first occurrence
of that character, let me show you. So let's print the result
we get 0, because the
index of the first capital p in the string is 0.
As another example, if we pass a lower case o here,
let's see what we get, we get 4 because
the index of this o here is 4. Now note that the
find method is case sensitive, so it's sensitive to
lower case and and upper case characters. As an example if you pass an upper case
here and run this program, we get negative 1 because
we don't have an upper case o anywhere in this string, okay?
We can also pass a sequence of characters, for example, we can pass
beginners with a capital B
let's run this program, we get 11 because
beginners starts with index 11, now we
also have method for replacing a character or a sequence of characters
and that is called replace. So let's change find
to replace let's say we want to replace beginners with
absolute beginners, so we add a comma to pass a second value
to this function, or more accurately this method. We add a string,
here I'm going to pass absolute beginners.
Okay, now let's run this program,
so, we get python for absolute beginners.
Again, this method like the find method is case sensitive so
if you pass beginners all in lowercase, this method is
not going to find this exact word in our string, so it's not going to
place it with absolute beginners. Let's take a look. So I'm going to run the program
One more time, look, we still get python for beginners.
We can also replace a single character, for example we can replace
capital p with let's say capital
j. Now when we run this program we get
jython for beginners. So these are the find and replace methods
and one last things I want to show you in this tutorial. There are
times that you want to check the existence of a character or sequence of characters in your
string. In those situations you use the in operator,
so let's say you want to know if this string contains the word python.
We can write an expression like this. String
python space in space course.
So we're checking to see if python is in
course variable. And this is an expression that produces a boolean
value, and I get true or false, so we refer to this expression
as a boolean expression, now if we print this on the terminal,
we should get true, and by the way
I'm going to delete the second line, we don't need it anymore, so run the program
we get true, but if I change this capitol p to a lower case
p and run the program we get false because we don't have
is exact sequence of characters in our strings.
Now note that the difference between the in operator and the find method
is that our find method returns the index of
character or sequence of characters but the in operator
produces a boolean value. Do we have this or not?
So that's the difference. Now let's recap all the cool things you learned
to do with strings in this tutorial. We can use the len function
to count the number of characters in a string, this is the general
purpose function built into python, we also have specific functions
for strings which we refer to as methods, these include
upper for converting a string into uppercase
you also have lower and title methods,
you learn about the find method which returns the index
of a character or sequence of characters, we have
the replace method for replacing characters and words in a string and finally
you learned about the in operator. So some characters
in a string.
So, you have learned that in Python programming language you have 2
types of numbers, integers which are whole numbers like 10, they don't have
a decimal point, and floating point numbers or floats.
Which are numbers with a decimal point. Now in this tutorial you're going to look
at the arithmetic operations supported in python language these are the
same arithmetic operations that we have in math, we can add numbers,
multiply them and so on. So let's look at a few examples,
we can print, 10 plus 3, so
this is the addition operator, we also have subtraction, we
have multiplication, we have two kinds of division,
here's one with a forward slash, let's run this program and see what we get.
we get a floating point number. But we also have
another division operator for getting an integer. So
if we add another slash here and run this program
we get an integer. We have
another operator called modulis (?) which is a percent sign.
And this returns the remainder of the division. So when we run this program
we should get 1, there you go. And
one last operator we have here is exponent which is the power.
So, that is indicated with 2 asterisks and this will return
10 to the power of 3. So let's run this program
we get 1000 so these are the arithmetic operators
in python programming language. Now for all these operators that you learned
we have an augmented assignment operator. That is
very useful, let me show you. So let's say we have a variable
called x we set it to 10, now we want to increment this by
3, we'll have to write code like this. X we set this to
x plus 3. So Python interpreter will add
10 to 3, the result is 13, and then it gets stored
into x again. So when we print x we should see
13, there you go. So this is how you can increment
a number, right? Now augmented assignment operator is
a way to write the same code but in a shorter form. This
is how it works. We type x plus
equals 3. What we have on line 3 is exactly
like what we have on line 2. So this is what we call
the augmented assignment operator we have augmented or
enhanced the assignment operator. Now in this particular
case we are incremented a number using the augmented assignment operator,
but we can also subtract or multiply a number by a given value
for example, let's delete what we have on line 2,
we can type subtract equals 3. So here we
subtracted 3 from x. When we run this program we should see 7,
there you go.
Now let me ask you a question, I'm going to clear all this code here to
define x and set it to 10 plus 3
times 2. What do you think is the result of this expression?
this is a very basic math question that unfortunately a lot of people fail to answer.
The answer is 16. Because in math we have this
concept called operator precedence which means the order of
operations. So the multiplication operator has
a higher precendence which means it's applied first which means 3 x
2 is executed first, the result is 6 and then
its added to 10, that's why x showed up as 16 after
we run this code, let's verify that. So, print x
run the program, x is 16. So this is what we call
operator precedence, it's just a basic math concept.
It's not about python programming language. So all the other programming languages
behave the same way, so here's the order, first we have
the exponentiation which is the power, like 2 to the power of 3,
then we have multiplication or division
and finally we have addition or subtraction.
This is the order of operations. Let me show you another example.
Here I'm going to add the exponentiation operator, so,
2 to the power of 2. Once again, what do you
think is the result of this expression? Pause the video and think about it for a few seconds.
The answer is 22.
Because the exponentiation operator takes precedence, so first
2 to the power of 2 is executed, the result is 4,
then 4 is multiplied by 3, that is 12,
and finally 12 is added to 10. So x should be 22.
So let's run this program and verify this. So I'm going to
delete these lines here. Run the program, there you go. X
is 22. Now let me bring back these rules here.
We can also use parenthesis to change the order of operations
so if we have parenthesis we always
takes priority. In this case we can add parenthesis
around 10 + 3, so this piece of 3 will be
executed first, the result is 13, then the exponentiation
operator will be executed, so 2 to the power of 2 is 4,
and finally 4 is multiplied by 13.
Now here is a little exercise for you. I'm going to set x to
parenthesis 2 + 3 x 10 minus
3. What is the result of this? Pause the video and think about it for a few seconds.
So you learned that parenthesis always
overrides the order, so this piece of code is executed first. The result
of these 5. Then, between the multiplication and
subtraction, you know that multiplication takes precedence.
So next, 5 will be multiplied by 10, the result is
50 and finally we have subtraction. So 50 minus
3 will be 47. Let's verify this, print
x, run the program there you go, I hope you guessed it right.
So this is all bout operator precedence, it's a very important topic
and I see it quite often in Python tests. So if you're preparing for a Python test
make sure to watch his tutorial one more time.
In this tutorial, we're going to look at a few useful functions for working with numbers
let's start by defining a variable like x and set it to 2
.9. Now to round this number we can use the built in
round function, so we call the round function, give it x,
and then print the result. Let's run this program
so, we get 3, we have another useful built in function called
abs which is short for absolute, and this is the absolute function
we have in math, we give it a value and it always returns
the positive representation of this value, even if the value is negative.
Here's an example. Let's call the abs function
and give it negative 2.9 When we run this program
we're gong to see 2.9 on the terminal. So let's go ahead
there you go. So absolute always returns a positive number.
But technically in Python we have a handful of built in functions for performing
mathematical operations, if you want to write a program that involves complex
mathematical calculations, you need to import the math module.
A module in Python is a separate file with some reusable
code. We use these modules to organize our code into different
files. As a metaphor think of a super market. When you go to a super market
you see different sections for fruits and vegetables, cleaning products,
junk food and so on. Each section in the super market is like a module
in Python. So in Python we have this math module which contains a bunch
of rustable functions for performing mathematical calculations.
So, let me show you how to use this module. On the top
we type import, math, all in lowercase
with this we can import the math module. now math is
an object like a string, so we can access it's functions or more accurately
it's methods using the dot operator. So if you type
math. look these are all the mathematical
functions available in this module. For example you can call the
seal method to get the sealing of a number. So if you pass 2.9 here
and then print the result we should see 3.
Let me delete all this other code here. Alright, let's run this program
there you go. So we get 3. Another useful method is the
floor method, so let's give that a try, floor of 2.
9. What do you think we're going to get? We get
2. Now there are so many functions built in this module and we don't really have time
to go through all of them. But let me show you how we can learn about them on your own.
Open up your browser and search for Python 3
math module. Make sure to add the version python 3.
Because the math module in python 2 is slightly different from the math module in
python 3. So python 3 math module,
now here you can see the documentation of this kind of module
let's go let's have a look, if you scroll down,
we can see the list of all the functions and their explanation.
So as an exercise I encourage you to have a quick look at this
documentation. See what functions are there for you in case you need them.
In this tutorial, I'm going to talk to you about if statements in Python
if statements are extremely important in programming and they
allow us to build programs that can make decisions based on some condition.
So if some conditions are true we're going to do certain things, otherwise we're going to do other
things. Here's an example. Over here I've got this text file with
a bunch of rules for our program. If it's a hot day, perhaps we want to
tell the user it's a hot day, so make sure to drink plenty of water.
Otherwise, if it's cold, so here's another condition
if this condition is true we're going to tell the user it's a cold day
so where warm clothes. And otherwise if it's
either hot or cold, we want to tell the user it's a lovely day.
So let me show you how to write a program that simulates these rules. So,
back to our program here, we start by defining a boolean variable
is underline hot. We set this to true.
Next, we add an if statement, so if, here
we need to add a condition, in this case we're going to use our boolean variable. So,
is underline hot. So if this values to true.
Then we're going to do certain things. In this case, we want to tell the user
hey it's a hot day, drink plenty of water. So, back to our program
after our condition we add a colon, now,
note that when I press enter pycharm automatically indents
our cursor. Now any code that we write here will be executed
if this condition is true, otherwise it will be ignored. Here
is an example. Let's write a print statement, here I'm going to use
double quotes because I want to use an apostrophe in our string. So,
it's a hot day. Now let's press enter
you can see the cursor is still indented, that means we can write more code
that we executed if this condition is true, in this case let's say we don't want to
write any extra code, so to terminate this block
we need to press shift and tab, now the cursor is at the beginning of the line
so lets write a print statement with a message like
enjoy your day. Now when we run this program, because
this condition is true, you're doing to say this message followed by
this second message, take a look, so run, there you go, it's a hot day
enjoy your day. But if I go over here and
change this boolean value to false and run the program again, our
first message disappears and we only see the second message, enjoy
your day. So this is how if statements work. Now back
here we can add another print statement let's say
drink plenty of water.
Now because this spirant statement is also indented it will be
executed if this condition is true. So I'm going to revert is hot to true
and run the program one more time. There you go, so
it's a hot day, drink plenty of water, and enjoy your
day. Alright now let's add a second rule here, if
it's hot we're going to execute these two lines, otherwise if it's not hot
we want to print a different message. So here
we are moving an indentation and typing els
colon. Now when we press enter once again our cursor
indented so the code that we write here will be executed if this
condition is not true. So here we can print
it's a cold day, print,
where warm clothes.
Now let's run our program one more time. So we get the message
about a hot day followed by enjoy your day. You don't see any message
about a cold day. Now if we go back here on the top.
And change this boolean value to false and run our program
we see different set of messages. It's a cold day
wear warm clothes and enjoy your day. But there's a problem with
our program. If it's not hot it doesn't necessarily mean that it's cold, it means
it's a lovely day. So the absence of heat doesn't mean its cold.
Back to our conditions, here on line 4 we have this rule that says
if it's a cold day, then print these messages
otherwise if it's neither hot or cold say it's a lovely day.
So, to implement this rule we need to go back and put
py and define another variable. So let' say
is underline cold we set this to
true. Now here we need to add a second condition. So after
our first if statement, we can use an el if statement
to define a second condition. So here's how it works. So,
el if which is short for els if or
otherwise if, now here we add another condition, so,
is cold So if t's cold you want to
execute these few lines. So let's cut these
from here, and move them under our second condition
and finally if none of these conditions are true,
you want to print a different message. It's a lovely
day. So, right now,
is hot is false, is cold is true,
so when we run this program, python interpreter is going to execute the first
if statement, in this case because our condition is false, these two
lines will be ignored, then Python interpreter will look at
line 7, it will evaluate this condition, in this case is
cold is true so we're going to see these two messages on the terminal.
Now, in this case, because one of these conditions was true, this els statement
will be ignored, so we are not going to see this message, and finally
as before, we are always going too see this message. So let's run our
program, there you go. it's a cold day,
where warm clothes and and enjoy your day. Now,
back to the top, if we change is cold
to false it's neither hot nor cold so it's going to be a lovely day.
Let's run the program, and here you go, it's a lovely day
enjoy your day. So these are the basics of using if
statements. As you can see they are very useful in programming and with these
we can build all kinds of rules into our programs. Okay here's an
exercise or you. Imagine the price of a house is 1 million dollars.
Now if the buyer has good credit, they will need to put down 10 percent
of the price of this property otherwise they need to put down 20 percent
write a program with these rules an display the down payment
card for a buyer with good credit. You will see my solution
next.
Alright let's define a variable for the price of this house so price
we set this to 1 million so 1 with 6 0s.
Next we need a variable to tell if this buyer has good credit
so has good credit,
and we set this to true, now we need an if statement
so if has good credit has true
colon, here we need to calculate a down payment so
the down_payment should be equal to
0.1 x the price. That is 10 percent of the price of this
property. Otherwise colon
the down payment should be 0.2
times price. Now finally we remove the
indentation and print here we can use a form
of valid string, first we add a label, down payment
colon and right after that we add a placeholder
or a hole for our down payment variable. So curly braces
down payment. Let's run this
program, so down payment for a buyer with good credit
is 100,000 dollars. Now let's improve this by adding a
dollar sign before this number. So back to our formatted string,
just before the curly brace I'm going to add a dollar sign let's
run this one more time, that is better.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you about the logical operators within Python.
We use these operators in situations where we have multiple
conditions. Here is an example. Let' say we're building an application for
processing loans. If an applicant has high income
and good credit, then they're eligible
for a loan. So in this example we have two conditions, one is having
high income and the other is having good credit. So if both
these conditions are true, then the applicant is eligible for a loan.
So this is where we use the logical and operator.
We use this operator to combine two conditions, and by the way
this is not specific to python programming language, pretty much any programming language
that supports if statements also supports the logical operators.
So, back to our program, let's define two variables,
has high income, we set this to true.
And another one has good
credit, we also set this to true, now our if statement
if has high income has true,
and has good credit is also true,
then we're going to print eligible
for null. So this is where
we're using the and operator. So if both these conditions are true
then this message will be printed. If one of them is false, we're not going to see
this message. Let's try this out. So I'm going to run this program
so we see it eligible for loan, but if we change
either of these conditions to false, and run the program again
look, the message disappears.
So this is the logical and operator. We also have the
logical or, and we want to use that in situations where we want to do certain things
at least one of the conditions is true, for example let's change
the rule for this program, such that if the applicant has high income,
or good credit, then they're eligible for a loan,
so if either or both these conditions are true then the candidate is
eligible. Now back to our program we can
implement this rule by using the logical or operator. So we simply replace
and with or, now when we run this program we're going to
see this message because at least one of our conditions is true,
let's take a look. So the applicant is eligible for a loan
for a loan because they have good credit. If you change this to false
but set the other condition to true, we still
see the same result, but if both these conditions are false
then we're not going to see this message anymore. So this is the difference
between these operators. With the logical and operator
both conditions should be true, with the logical
or operator at least one condition should be true
we also have another logical operator called not
and that basically inverses any boolean value we give it, if we give it,
we give it a true boolean value it converts it to false. For example
let's make up a new room, if applicant
has good credit and doesn't have
a criminal record then
they're eligible for a loan. Let me show you how to implement this. So,
we go back to our program, in this example we don't need a
first variable for let's delete that. Let's set this variable to true
we also define another variable like has criminal
record. We set this to false.
Now, we want to check to see if this applicant has good credit and not
a criminal record. This is where we use the not operator.
So, if they have good credit,
and not criminal
record. So, in this example, has criminal
record is set to false, when we use the not operator this
basically gets changed to true, so we have two conditions that are true.
Here's ones and here's another one. So our applicant is
eligible for a loan. And when we run this program we see
this familiar message. However
if an applicant has a criminal record, so let's change this to
true, now when we run this program we can see our applicant is
not eligible because when we apply then operator on this
variable, we'll get false. So true changes to false.
And we'll end up with two conditions, one that's true
and the other is false. And that's why this message is
not printed. So this is all about the logical operators in
python.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about
comparison operators in Python. We use comparison operators
in situations where we want to compare a variable with a value,
for example, if temperature is greater than 30, then
we want to print it's a hot day. Otherwise, if it's less
then 10, it's a cold day, otherwise it it's neither hot
nor cold. And by the way I'm taking about celsius, not farenheit.
So, to build these rules into our program, we need to use comparison
operators. Back to app.py, I define this
temperature value, let's write an if statement, if temperature
now we want to check to see if this is greater than 30, so we use
the greater than operator. If this is greater than 30,
we want to print it's a hot day
otherwise, let's just print
it's not a hot day. Now,
when we run this program, we're going to see this second message because 30
is not greater than 30. So our first condition a value
is to false. let's verify that. So run,
it's not a hot day. Now if you change
the temperature to 35 and run this again,
we're going to see a different message, it's a hot day, so this is where we use
comparison operators. Now what we have here as you know is an expression
because it's a piece of code that produces a value. So more accurately this is
a boolean expression. So this is the greater than operator,
we also have greater than or equal to, we have
less then, less then or equal to,
here's the equality operator, so if the temperature equals to 30,
then you can say it's a hot day. Note that this is different from the assignment operator
that has only one equals sign. You can see that if we use only one equal sign
here we immediately get this red underline because this is simply
an assignment statement. We're changing the value of the temperature.
you are setting the value of
something else. So we don't have a boolean expression, you are not producing a
boolean value. Okay? So, our equality operator
has two equal signs and finally we have not
equal which is an exclamation followed by an equal sign.
Now here's an exercise for you. You have probably seen that when you fill out a
form online, sometimes the input fields have validation messages,
for example, let's say we have an input field for the user to enter their name.
Now if the name is less then 3 characters wrong we want to display a validation
error, like name must be at least three characters,
otherwise, if the name is more then 50 characters long then we want
to display a different validation error like name can be a maximum
of 50 characters. Otherwise if the name is between 3 and 50 characters
then we just want to tell the user that name looks good.
So go ahead, and write a plan to implement these rules.
Alright let's define a variable called name and set it to
let's say j. So we're assuming this is what the user types into an input field.
Now, we want to get the number of characters in this string.
So we use the len function, right? Len of name.
When we print this we get 1, right
you have seen this before. Now here we want to use an if statement so
if len of name is less then
3, then we want to print
name must be at least 3 characters
now here we need a second condition
to check the upper limit. So el if
len of name is greater than 50,
then we want to print a different message, name,
must be a maximum
of 50 characters.
Okay? And otherwise if else
none of these conditions are true that means the name looks good. So,
print, name looks good. Let's
run our program. So in this case we get this message
because our name is too short. Now if you go back here and
type something really really long. And then
we run our program we're going to see a different message name must be a
maximum of 50 characters and finally if
we type a proper name here like John Smith
and run our program we get name
looks good.
Here's another good exercise that combines
many of the materials you have learned so far, so earlier you built a program to
convert someone's weight from pounds to kilograms. Now we want to extend this program
and allow the user to enter their weight in either kilograms or
pounds and then we will convert it to the other unit. Here's how our program
is going to work. So I enter my weight in pounds so
100 and 60 now it's telling me if it's in pounds or
kilograms. So here I'm adding l to lbs or k for kilograms.
And by the way, this program is not case sensitive so
when I enter a capital l or lowercase l it takes
it as pounds. Now it tells me ur set it to
kilos. Let's run this program one more time,
this time I'm going to enter my weight in kilo's, so send it to
is the weight and the unit is kilograms so k,
and it says you are 160 pounds.
So go ahead and spend a few minutes on this exercise, you will see my solution next.
Alright first let's ask the user their weight. So we use the input
function, weight colon we get the return value
and store it in the variable called weight.
Now the second question, so one more time we use the input function
el for pounds.
Or k for kilograms. So,
let's get that too and store it in a variable called unit
now we need an if statement. So if unit
equals l then we need to convert this weight
into kilograms. However, with this implementation we are only allowing
the user to enter a capitol l, if they enter a lowercase l
this code is not going to work. So this is where we use the upper
method of string objects so this unit is a string because as I told you
before, the input function always returns a string.
So, we can use the dot operator to access all it's methods or
functions, here we call the upper method, this
will convert whatever the user enters to upper case and then we'll convert it
to a capital l. Now, if this condition is true,
then we need to get the weight and multiply it by 0,
.45 However, as you know this
weight is a string object, and we cannot multiply a string
by a floating point number, we talked about this earlier in this course.
So first we need to convert this weight to a numerical value. So
right here, when we call the input function, we can get the return
value and pass it to the int function. So,
we call the int function and give it
the return value of the input function. Now, the
in function will return an integer so we can store it in this weight
variable. So here's the converted weight, let's store it in
a variable called converted,
then we print here we can use a formatted string, so
we prefix this string with f ur
we add curly braces to dynamically insert the value of
converted variable. And finally we add kilo.
Otherwise, if the unit is kilograms.
We need to divide the weight by 0.45. q
So, weight divided by 0.45 and
just to refresh your memory, this division operator returns a floating point number
but if we use double slashes we'll get an integer.
In this case, we want to get a floating point number,
finally let's print a formatted string, ur
curly braces, converted
pounds. Okay? Now
let's run this program and see what happens. So weight is
160 and lbs in
and that equals to 72 kilos, perfect, if we run it one more time,
and enter 72 kilos
we get 160 pounds.
In this tutorial I'm going to show you how to use y loops in python. We
use y loops to execute a block of code multiple times and there are often
useful in building interactive programs and games. In a future tutorial
I'm going to show you how to build a simple game using a y loop.
So, let's get started with the basics, we write a y statement
and right after that, we type a condition followed by a colon
as long as this condition is true the quote that we write
in this block will be repeatedly executed. Here is an example.
We can define a variable like i, as in short for
index and set it to 1. Now we set our condition to
i less than or equal to 5, so as long as I
is less then or equal to 5, we can print i,
on the terminal. And then we need to increment i,
by 1. So we set i to i plus 1. The reason
we do this is that if we don't do this I will be 1 forever
so we'll end up with an infinite loop. Because this condition will
always be true. One is always less then 5, so in every iteration of this
loop, we increment i by 1, so at some point, i is gonna be
six and then that is when this condition will be false and then
we'll jump out of this loop, okay? Now to demonstrate how everything works
after this loop I'm going to add a print statement
say done. So note that these two lines
are indented so they are part of the y block.
Okay, now let's go ahead and run this program and see what happens. So,
take a look, we get the numbers 1-5 followed by
done. So heres how this program gets executed
first we set i to 1 now python interpreter executes line
2, this condition is true because i is less then 5,
so i is printed on the terminal and then incremented by
1. Then the control moves back to the beginning of the y loop.
So it doesn't go to the next statement. So,
we come back here and now we are in the second iteration. In the second iteration
i is 2, and because 2 is less then 5, our condition is still
true, so i will be printed on the terminal, and once again it will be
incremented by 1, so at some point i is going to be 6,
and that's when this condition will be false so our look will
be terminated and this done message will be printed on the terminal.
So this is the basics of y loops. Now let's make this program a little
bit more interesting. Here we can write an expression like this. We
add a string, and in this string we add an asterisk
and then we multiply this string by i. So
with this expression, we can repeat a string, when we multiply a string
by a number, that string will be repeated. For example, if
i is two, this expression will produce a
string with two asterisks. Now let's run the program
and see what we get. So we see this little triangle
shape here. Because in the first iteration i is 1, so,
1 times an asterisk produces 1 asterisk.
In the second iteration i is 2, so when we multiply 2
by 1 asterisks, we'll get 2 asterisks.
In this tutorial I'm going to show you how to use a y loop to build
a guessing game like this. So we have this secret number which is currently set to
9. Now the computer is asking me to make a guess. So,
let's say 1 is not right because the secret number is 9, okay,
try again, 2, no it's not right, let's try again, so I
only have three chances to make a guess. If I can't guess the number the program
tells me that I failed. let's run the program one more time, this time
I'm going to guess the number, it's 9, there you go, it says you in.
So let's go ahead and build this program using a y loop.
Alright, let's start by defining a variable to store our secret number
so, we call the secret underline number and set it to 9.
Now we need a while loop to repeatedly ask a user to
make a guess. So while condition colon
What is our condition here? Well we want to give our user a
maximum of three guesses. So similar to the last tutorial, we can define
a variable like I, set it to 0, and assume this represents
the number of guesses the user has made. And then we write our condition
as i less then 3. Note that here I'm not
using less then or equal to operator, because with this condition
our loop will be executed 4 times, while i is 0,
one, two, and three, so here we should use
the less then operator. Now if we give this code to someone else it's unclear
what does i represent here, it's only in our head that
i represents the number of guesses the user has made. So as
a best practice, always use meaningful and descriptive names for your variables.
So it's better to rename this variable to guess, count.
Let me show you how to rename. So right click on i variable,
and then go to refactor and
rename it. Look at the shortcut. On a Mac computer it's shift and
f 6. Now in this dialogue box we can easily
rename your variable and pycharm will update all the references to that
variable so we don't have to manually update each instance, okay? Let's
change this to guess_count
enter, there you go, now that is better,
also it's better to store 3 in a separate variable to make our code
more readable, because it's not quite clear what does 3 represent here.
So, let's define a variable called guess limit
say to 3, and then we can change 3 to guess
underline limit, now our code is more readable
while guess count is less then guess limit, see it reads like a story
this is how you should write code. Okay, so
while this condition is true, we want toast the user to make a guess. So here
we use our input function, guess
Now whatever the user enters comes out as a string so we need to convert it to an integer.
So right here, we pass the result to the end function
and then get it and store it in a separate variable called guess.
So at this point the user made a guess, now we need to
increment guess count so guess count
we set it to plus equal 1 or
okay, now we need to check to see if the user will make the right guess.
So here we need an if statement. If what the user guessed
equals our secret number,
again see our code is so readable. It's like a story you can read it like plain
English. So if this condition is true we want to
tell the user they won. So print you won
now lets go ahead and run our program up to this point.
So okay it's asking me to make a guess, I'm going to make
the wrong guess so one it asked me again, 2 one more time,
3, okay, what is missing in this implementation is the
message that tells me that I failed. We're going to take care of it momentarily, but
let's run the program one more time and make the right guess. So, 9
okay it says you won, but it's still asking me to make
a guess, because our while loop is going to get executed 3 times. Look
1 and 2. So we need to change our program
such that if the user makes the right guess, we need to terminate our
while loop, we need to jump out of it. How do we do that?
So, over here if the user makes the right guess, after
we print this message we can use the brick statement to terminate
terminate a loop, when python interpreter sees this, it's going to
immediately terminate our loop, it's not going to evaluate this condition again.
Now let's run our program and see what happens. So, I'm going to
guess the right number, you won and look, you are
now asked to make two more guesses, beautiful. Now the last thing we need
to add here is the message that tells the user that they failed if they could not guess
the right number. How do we do that? Well in Python
our while loops can optionally have an else part.
similar to the if statements. So earlier you learned that our if statements
can optionally happen else part. Here, so
if this condition is true, do this,
otherwise do something else. In this case our if statement doesn't have
an else part. Now, similar to the if statements
Our while loops, our while statements can also have an else part.
So, right at this level we can add
an else block, so else colon.
And the code that we write here will get executed if this while loop
completes successfully without an immediate
break. In other words. If the user guesses the
right number, you break this loop, you jump out of it so the code that
we write in the else block will not get executed.
But if the user cannot guess this number, you're never going to break out of
this loop, so this loop will be executed to completion untill
this condition become false. In that case, the code that we write
in the else block will get executed, and this is the perfect opportunity for us
to tell the user hey, you made three guesses but none of them were right.
So, print, sorry you
failed. Now, let's test the program one more time.
So, guess 1, 2, 3,
sorry you failed, let's run it one more time. This time I'm going to make
a wrong guess, and then the right guess,
we won and our loop terminated immediately.
Alright, now it's time for you to practice what you have learned so far.
So once again we're going to build a game this game is a simulation
card game. Now our game doesn't have a graphical user interface or gooey
and it doesn't really matter for now, our focus is entirely on building the
engine for this game. So let's see how this works.
When we run this, we get this little symbol here, and our program
is waiting for us to enter a command. If you type help
either a lower case or upper case we get the list of commands
that our program or our game currently supports. So we can type the
start command to start our car, we can type
stop command to stop our car, and quit to terminate the game.
Any other commands that we type our program is going to tell us hey I don't understand that.
For example, if I type asd here, it's going to say I don't understand
that.If you type start, we get this message,
car started, ready to go, if you type stop it
says car stopped, and finally if we hit quit
our program terminates, this is a fantastic exercise for you to practice
wha you have learned, so pause the video and spend 5-10 minutes
to build this program.
Alright, we're going to start with a while loop with a condition
What is our condition here? We want to run this loop
until the user types quit. So we can define a variable
or a story to command what the user enters, and then we can run this
loop as long as the command does not equal to quit. So right before
the loop, we define a variable, command, and initially we set it
to an empty string. An empty string is a string that has no characters
in it. We only have the quotes. So then
we type out our condition as while command
does not equal to quit then do something.
Now immediately we have a problem here because we're assuming that the user
types the command in lower case, so if they type this in upper case they
our program is not going to behave properly, so to fix this problem, you need to
call the lower method of the string object and then compare the results.
With this quit. You could also call this upper
and then type quit in upper case. It's about our personal preference
in this demo I'm going to use lower case characters.
So, okay, now in this loop we need to ask the user to enter
a command. So once again we're going to use our input function, we're going to add
a greater then symbol followed by a space,
whatever the user enters, we get it and store it in our
command variable. Now apart from
quit command, there are three other commands that we need to support. Start,
stop, and help. So here we need an if statement to compare
what the user enters with one of the supported commands.
So, if command.lower
equals start then you want to print the message
like the car started. So print the car started.
Ready to go, it doesn't matter,
now the second condition. What if its not start, maybe it's stop? So,
el if command.lower
equals stop, there you go, then we print a
different message car stopped. Now look at our code.
We have repeated this lower lower lower multiple times.
This is bad, in programming we have a term called dry, which is short for
don't repeat yourself. So whenever you have duplicate
your code that means you're doing something wrong. So how can we solve this problem.
Well, instead of calling the lower method in each condition,
we can call it right here when we get the input from the user, so
this input function as you know returns a string, we can
immediately call the lower method on this string, and with this command
will always be in lowercase, so we don't need to
call this method in every condition. Look,
we remove the duplication and also our conditions
are shorter and easier to read. There is also one more place
we need to modify so, it's right here. That is better.
Now, the third command. We need one more el if.
If the command equals help, then,
we want to show the commands that we support. So,
here we're going to print a multi line string. So we
use triple quotes like this, and
give the user a guideline like this. So start
to start the car stop
to stop the car, and
quit to quit. Now finally we need
an else part, so if what the user enters is none of these commands,
we're going to tell them, hey we don't understand these,
else, colon print
sorry I don't understand that.
And by the way note that here becomes I'm using double
quotes, I can easily use a single quote as an apostrophe, okay?
So let's run our program up to this point and see what happens.
Alright, let's type start car is
started, beautiful, stop, car is stopped, help,
we get this guideline, but there's so much indentation
before our commands, we'll fix that in a second. And finally
let's test the quit command, oops, our program
didn't work properly. Here is the reason. With these if statements,
we're comparing the command with start stop, and
help. Anything else will end up here, so that's why our
program says it doesn't understand that. So that's why our program
says it doesn't understand that command. However, after this el statement
the control will be moved to the beginning of the loop.
At this point our command is quit, so our loop will complete and the
program terminates. In other words when we run this program
and type quit, our program actually quits but
we still see this message which shouldn't appear here. How can we solve this problem?
Well, we can come back here and just before
the else block, add another el if, something like
this. el if command equals
quit then you can immediately break.
This will solve our problem, but note that we have kind of repeated
this expression in two places. The reality is that
we don't really need this condition on the top, because with these if statements
well more accurately with this el if we can jump out of this loop and terminate
our program. So, we can simplify our condition
to something like this. True. So while true means
this block of code is going to get executed repeatedly,
until we explicitly break out of it,
okay? Now let's test our program one more time. So,
quit now our program terminates and we don't see that message
beautiful. So let's fix the last problem. You saw that when we
typed help, these guidelines appeared with so much in
indentation, and here's the reason, look, right here in our code,
they are already indented. So when we use triple quotes, what we type here
will be printed exactly as is. So, because we
have an indentation here, this indentation will also be printed on the terminal.
So, let's delete these
okay, run the program one more time, type help,
the indentation is gone. Beautiful. Now here's a challenge for you. I want you to
take this program to the next level. So right now if we type
start we get this message car started. And if we type start again
we get the same message. It would be better if
we got a message like car is already started so it doesn't make sense to
start a car twice. Similarly, if we type stop
it says car stopped, if we type it again we get the exact same
message, it doesn't make sense to stop the car twice. So here's what I need you to do
if the car is stopped and the user tries to stop it again,
the program should say hey, the car is already stopped, what are you doing? And similarly
if the car is already started and the user tries to start it again,
the program should yell at the user. So go ahead and make the necessary changes to
implement this scenario.
Alright to add this to our program, we need
to know if the car is started or not. So there is one more piece of information
we need to store in the memory. What is the kind of data we need to store here?
A boolean. Is the car started or not, it's a matter of yes
or no. True or false. So on the top, here
we can define another variable like started and initially we set it
to false. So the car is not started, right? Now
when the user types the start command, here we need to check
to see if the car is already started. If not the we'll start it
or otherwise we'll yell at the user. So in this block we'll write
another if statement, if it's already started
and we print car is already
started. Otherwise, so if you add an
el statement here. And at this point,
you set started to true. So we start
the car and we print this message, okay? Now we need to make a similar
change for the stop command. So if the car is
already stopped we need to print a different message. If
not started, so here we're using the not operator to see
if the car is stopped. So if it's not started that means
it's stopped, okay? So if it stopped we print
car is already stopped with
double p's, otherwise so else
we need to stop the car, how do we do that? We
set started to false. And then we'll print this message.
As easy as that. Let's go ahead and run our program.
So, initially our car is stopped. So I'm going to type
stop, it says the car is already stopped, so lets
start it, okay, now our car is started, let's
start it one more time. The program is yelling at us. So we can
not start the car twice. Beautiful. Now let's stop it
it says the car is stopped, let's stop it one more time, we get this message
again.
In this tutorial, I'm going to talk to you guys about
for loops in python. In the last tutorial, you learned about while loops
you learned that we use while loops to execute a block of code multiple times.
In python we have another kind of loop, that is a for loop, and we use that
and we use that to iterate over items of a collection, such as a string.
Because a string is a sequence of characters, so it looks like a collection
so we can use a for loop to iterate over each character in a
string and then do something with it. Here's an example. We type out
for then we define a variable, this is what we call a loop
variable. In each iteration, this variable will hold
one item. So, let's call it item, in
here we type out a string like Python, and then
colon. So with this for loop we can iterate over a string and in each
iteration this item variable will hold one character at a time
in the first iteration it will be set to p then
in the second iteration it will be set to y, and in the third iteration it will be set to
t and so on. So here we are inside our for block,
because of the indentation here, so whatever we type here will be executed in
each iteration, for now we can simply print this item
now let's run this program and see what happens.
So you can see each character in this string is printed on
a new line. Let's look at another example. In Python we can
define lists using square brackets, so let me remove this string from
here, and define a list using square brackets,
a list is simply a list of items, a list of numbers, a list of
customers, a list of emails, products, blog posts, whatever.
So here we can define a list of names like Mosh,
Jon, Sarah, and then go ahead
and run our program so we can see in each iteration we get one name
and print it on a new line. We can also
loop over a list of numbers, for example,
1, 2, 3, 4, let's run it, again
we see each number on a new line, but what if we want
a list of numbers? We don't to explicitly type out a list
with let's say 100 or 1000 numbers, we don't want to type, 5, 6
7 all the way to 100. That is when we use the range function.
So, let me delete this,
In Python we have a built in function called range, for creating
range of numbers. So, we give it a number, let's say 10,
let's run this program, now we can see
here on the terminal we have 0 all the way
to 9. So 10 is not included.
So basically when we call the range function, this range creates
an object, it's not a list, it's a special kind of object we can
iterate over, in each iteration this object will spit out a new number.
We can also work with a range of numbers here, let's say you want to start
from 5, and go all the way to 10.
So, let's run our program, now we have the numbers
5, 6, 7, and 9. Also, this range
function can optionally take a step, so we can pass
two asa step to this function,
and when we run our program, we can see our first number
is 5, now we go two steps forward to get 7,
once again we go to two steps forward we get 9 and that is
the end of our range. So this is the basics of using for loops in python.
Now here's an exercise for you. I want you to write a program
to calculate the total cost of all the items in a shopping cart.
So let's say we have a list of prices like 10,
20, and 30, I want you to use a for loop,
to calculate the total cost of all the items in our imaginary shopping cart,
so calculate that, and then print it on the terminal. That's pretty
easy. And you should do it in a couple minutes.
So as you learned we use for
loops to iterate over all the items in a collection,
a collection can be a string, it can be a list, it can be a range object that is
returned from the range function. Anything, any kind of object that has multiple
items. So in this example we're going to use a for loop to iterate over
the list of prices. So for item in
prices, colon, and by the way this loop variable
we don't have to call this item, can call this anything. For example, in this case
we can rename it to price. So for price,
in prices. Now in each iteration this
price will hold one value. In the first iteration it's going to hold 10, then it's
gooing to be 20, and then it's going to be 30. So we need to define
another variable to calculate the total so
we define that outside of our for loop, let's call it total
and initially we set it to 0. Now in each
iteration we get the current price and add it to the total so
we write total equals total plus price
or as you learned earlier we can use the augmented
assignment operator to simplify this code.
So, after our for loop. This total variable has
a total of all the prices we can simply print it here,
or we can use a formatted string, so a string
prefix with f, the other label, like total,
curly braces to dynamically include some value in our string,
in this case our total variable. So let's go ahead
and run this program, there you go, so the total cost of
all the items in our imaginary shopping cart is 60.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about nested loops
in python. Using a nested loop basically means adding one loop
inside of another loop, and with this technique we can do some amazing things
for example we can easily generate a list of coordinates. So, a
acquired (?) as you know is a combination of x and y
value. Let's say 0 and 0. Now let's say you wan to generate
a list of coordinates like this. So we have 0 and 0,
then we'll have 0 and 1, then 0 and 2, next
we're going to change x, so we're going to use 1 for x,
and once again we're going to use these 3 values for the y coordinates
so 1 and 0 then 1 and 1
and 1 and 2, you got the point. We can
easily generate these coordinates using nested loops. Let me show you.
So, we start with one loop, let's say for x in
range 4. With this loop, we can generate value
for the x coordinate. Let's print this on the terminal,
Okay, so, we get the values, 0
to 3. Now for each x, like 0, we
should generate a few y values. So that is where we use
a nested loop. So inside of this loop we're going to add
another loop, so instead of just printing x first we want to add
another loop, for y in range
let's say 3, now we can print x and y together
so, print, here, we use a formatted string.
to display coordinates like this. So we add parenthesis
inside of this parenthesis first we need to add x so curly braces
x then a comma followed by
another set of curly braces, and y,
let's run this program and see what we get.
There you go. So, we have these coordinates
0 and 0, 0 and 1, 0 and 2, then you have
1 and 0 1 and 1 1 and 2 and so on. So let me explain exactly
how this program gets executed. So in the first iteration,
of our outer loop, x is 0. Now we are
on line 2, here we have a new loop which we call an
inner loop. In this inner loop, in the first iteration y
is going to be 0, so we print 0 and 0 on the
terminal. Now the control goes back to line 2 or our
inner loop. In this second iteration y will be set to 1, but
we are still in the first iteration of our outer loop. So
x is still 0, but now y is incremented to 1.
So that is why we see 0 and 1 on the terminal.
Once again, the control goes back to line 2, we are in the third
iteration of our inner loop, so this will continue until our inner loop
completes. That is when y reaches 2 because
this range function generates number 0 to 3 but not including
3. So we'll have 0 1 and 2. After this inner loop completes,
then the control goes back to line 1, and at this point we're going to
be in the second iteration of our outer loop. So x will be
1, then the control will be moved to line 2, or our inner
loop, at this point, this range function is going to generate the numbers 0
to 3 one more time. So this inner loop will be executed 3 times.
And then we'll go back to our outer loop. So this is how
nested loops get executed.
Okay, here's an exercise for you, but this one is a little bit
more challenging then the exercises you have done so far. So I really don't
expect you to do it, but if you do it, wow, I will be so proud of you,
so see what I've done here? Using nested loops,
I've written some code to draw this f shape, can you see that? So I
let me give you a hint, first of all we have this
list, called numbers, in this list we have these values,
5, 2, 5, 2, 5, 2. These values determine
the number of x's we have in each line. So,
for example, the first item in this list, this tells us that we should have
5 x's on the first line. There you go, so 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, on the second line we're going to have 2 x's,
on the third line we're going to have 5 x's like this.
So I've written code to convert a simple list of numbers
into a shape like this. Now here's a tip for you.
Using your for loop you need to iterate over this list. In
each iteration you get one number, this determines the number of x's
to be displayed on that particular line. So if you want to cheat,
you can get this number and multiply by a string that contains x,
so if you multiply x by 5, we'll get 5 x's, that's not what
I want you to do. I want you to use an inner loop here to
generate a string that contains 5 x's. So imagine
in Python we cannot multiply a string by a number
so to solve this problem we need a nested loop. So go ahead and spend
five minutes on this exercise. And by the way, do your best to solve this. It is
a little bit challenging, but it's not extremely difficult. It just requires
a little bit of focus. You'll see my solution next.
Alright so first we need to iterate over
all the items in this list. So for item
in numbers, or, you could rename this variable
to x_count. That is the number of x's
on each line. Okay? Now I told you that if you want to cheat you can write code
like this. Print x times
x underline count. If you run this program we get the same
output. So this is the beauty of Python, with Python
we can write expressions like this, we can multiply a string by a number to
repeat it. A lot of other programming languages don't support this feature. But
for this exercise, I wanted you to imagine that we don't have this feature in Python
so you will have to use an inner loop to solve this problem. Here's how
it works. In the first iteration, x count is going to be 5.
So we need to generate 5 x's. How can we do that?
Well, let's say we define a variable called output and initially set it to
an empty string. Now we need to add 5 x's to this string. So,
we can use another loop for count in range,
of x underline count. So we're using the range function
to generate a sequence of numbers from 0 up to
x count. So in our first iteration x count is going to be 5, so
range of 5 would generate the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4.
So this inner loop will be executed 5 times.
That is exactly what this count represents.
So now in each iteration we simply need to
append an x to our output variable. So we set
output, plus, equals x,
and then after this inner loop we simply print
the output. With his we'll print 5 x's on
the first row. Then we go to the second iteration of our outer loop.
At this point x count is going to be 2, now
on line 3, we're going to reset our output variable to an
empty string. So we start over. Then we go to our inner loop,
this loop will be executed 2 times, so we'll append to x's
to the output variable and then print it, as simple as that.
So see, it wasn't really that difficult, but it was slightly more difficult then the
previous exercises. So let's run this program, there you go.
Now if you're adventurous, I want you to modify the values that we have
in our numbers list,
to print and l here.
Now in this tutorial we're going to take a closer look at lists.
So, I'm going to define a list of names, let's send them
to John Bob Mosh
Sarah and Mary. So,
if you print this list here, what we see on
the terminal look exactly like how we define our lists we have
square brackets, and in between these square brackets we have our item
our items, so we have 5 strings in this list.
So we can also access an individual element using an index just like
how we can access an individual character in a string using an index.
So, here we type out square brackets,
and specify an index. The index of the first item in this list
is 0. So, let's run this program, there you go,
we get Jon now if you want to print out the third element in this list
it's index is 2, so names of 2,
returns Mosh, now we can also pass
a negative index here, so negative 1, refers to the last item
in this list, that is Mary, let's run the program,
there you go, we see Mary, if you pass negative 2, this
returns the second item from the end of the list. So let's run the program,
there you go, we get sarah, so this is exactly like accessing
individual characters in a string. We can also
use a colon to select a range of items, for example if
you pass 2 colon. This will get all items
starting from the index of 2, that is Mosh here all the
way to the end of the string. So let's run this program
there you go. We get this list with 3
items, Mosh, Sarah, and Mary. We can also specify
an end index, let's say 4, so this will return all
the items up to this index, but it doesn't include the item at this index.
So when we run this program we only see Mosh and
Sarah, the item I've indexed 4which is the 5th element or
5th item in this list is not returned. So Mary
is not returned. And also here we have default values, so if you
leave out the end index this expression is going to return
all the items starting from the index of 2, to the end of the list
or if you leave out the start index, this expression asumes
0 as the default index, so it will return all the items from the
beginning to the end of the list. And by the way,
just like strings, these square brackets here, don't modify our
original list, they simply return a new list. For example, if we pass
2 here, you can see this returns a new list with 3 items.
So if you go back here and print our original
list of names right after you can see it's not affected.
So here we want to use square brackets with a colon to select a
range of items, we get a new list, and by the way we can also
modify any of the elements in this list. For example let's say we made a mistake and
the first item shouldn't be john with an h,
so we want to remove the h, that is very easy, so we access it,
using an index that is names of 0, and we set it to a new value
like this. Now, let's print our list
so, you can see the first item in this list
is now data. So this is the basics of lists. And here's a
exercise for you. I want you to write a program to find the largest number
in your list. This is a fantastic exercise for beginners, so go ahead and
spend a few minutes on this, then come back and continue watching.
Alright, let's
define a list of numbers, numbers, with a bunch of random numbers
3, 6, 2, 8, 4 and 10.
Now to find the largest number in this list. We need to define another
variable let's call it max, this variable will hold
the largest number, now initially you want to assume
the first item in this list is the largest number. So we set max to
numbers of 0. We're only assuming that the first item
is the largest number. Chances are our assumption is wrong. So we need
to iterate over this list, we need to loop through it, get
each item and compare it with max. If it's greater than Max, then
we need to reset max to that number. So in the first iteration we get
3, and max is also 3. Is 3 greater than
3. No, so we move on, we get the second number, is
6, greater than 3? It is, so we need to reset max
to 6. Once again, we continue, we get 2, these two greater
than 6, no it's not, so we move on, then we get 8,
is 8 greater than 6? It is, so we should reset max to 8.
That is pretty easy. So here we need a for loop, for
number in numbers colon
now we need too heck to see if this number is greater than max,
so, if number is greater than max,
max colon then we need to reset max, so max
to this new number, that's all we had to do.
So, let's print max, and run our
program we can see the largest number in this list is 10.
It doesn't matter whether this number is at the end of the list or the beginning.
So if I move 10 and put it right at the beginning
we should still see the same result. Let's run our program,
we still see 10, if I put this somewhere in the middle, our
program should still work. Let's put it right after 2.
Run the program, we still get 10.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about two dimensional
lists in python. Two dimensional lists are extremely powerfully and they have a lot
if applications in data science and machine learning. Here's
an example, In math we have a concept called matrix, which is like
a rectangular array of numbers, let me show you. So
we have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
So we have a rectangular array of numbers. You have rows,
and columns. So this is a 3 x 3 matrix
in math. Now we can model this in python using
a 2 dimensional list. A 2 dimensional list is a list where
each item in that list is another list. So,
you want to define a matrix. We set it to a list, each
item in this list, is going to be another list, and that list represents
the items in each row. So, the first
item in our list is going to be another list, and in this other list we're going to have
the values 1, 2, and 3. Now the second
item in our matrix list, once again, we have a list,
this list represents the items in the second row. So,
4, 5, and 6, and finally 7, 8
9. So as you can see we have a 2 dimensional list
Each item in our outer list is another list.
Okay? So, this is how we can implement a matrix in
python, now to access an individual item in our matrix,
once again we use square brackets, let me delete this stuff,
alright, so how do we access 1 here,
well, you start with our list then we add square
brackets first we need to go and get the first item in this list.
Right? So we pass 0, now this expression
returns another list. That is the inner list. In this list,
let's say you want to access the second item, so,
once again we add square brackets, and we pass 1, that
is the index of 2 in this list, alright.
So if we print this on the terminal
we get 2. Okay? So using 2 square brackets
we can access individual items in our matrix, and
also we can modify these values using this syntax, so,
before printing this, let's change this to 20, so matrix
of 0, and 1, let's change it to 20,
and then print it, there you go, it's modified, now here you
can also use nested loops to iterate over all the items
in this matrix. Let me show you. So,
we start with a rows for the rows in matrix,
so with this loop, we are iterating over our Matrix
list, in each iteration row will contain 1
list, 1 item, okay? Now, here we need to
use an inner loop. So we need to loop over this row
which is a list of items. We can type out 4
item in row colon and print
item. Okay? So, let's run this program,
there you go, we get all the item
in our list. Hey, I just
wanted to make a quick announcement. In case you haven't seen my website yet, head over to codewithmosh.com
this is my coding school, where you can find plenty of courses
on web and mobile application development. In fact recently I published a
comprehensive python course that goes way beyond this beginners
youtube. And if you're serious about learning python and getting a job, I highly encourage
you to enroll in this course. Just like this tutorial you can watch it anytime,
anywhere as many times as you want, and you will also receive a certificate
of completion that you can add to your resume, and the course comes with a 30 day
money back guarantee, so if you're not happy we'll give all your money back,
no questions ask. The price for this course is 149 dollars, but
the first 200 students can get it for only 15 dollars. So if you're interested,
the link is below this video, click the link, and get started.
In this tutorial, I'm
going to talk to you guys about the list methods, or list functions. These are the
operations that we can perform in a list. So let's define
a list of numbers, here we pass a bunch of random numbers, like
5, 2, 1, 7, and
4. Now there are a number of things we can do with this list, we can
add new items to it, we can remove existing items, we can check for the existence of an item
these are the operations that we can perform on a list. So,
the we type numbers, we can see all these functions or more accurately
the methods that are available in our list objects.
So we can call the append method to add a new item to this list. Let's say
13. Actually, no it's not a good number.
I'm joking I'm not superstitious, so let's add 20, it
doesn't really matter and then print our list
when we run the program we can see 20 is added at the end of this list
but what if you want to add a number somewhere in the middle, or at the beginning
of our list? For that we use a different method, that is called
insert. So, insert, now this method
takes 2 values, let me show you. So when we open parenthesis
look at this little tool tip above the insert method.
You see the first value that we need to pass here is an index, so
this is the index at which we want to insert this new item. Let's
say we want to add an item at the beginning of our list, so we passed our index position
of 0, and then the second value is the actual
object we want to add to this list. Let's say we want to add the number 10,
now when we print this list you can see that the
number 10 is placed at the beginning of the list and
all the other items are pushed to the right. We can also remove an item so
we call remove and pass the item that
we want to remove 5. Now we
print our list so we see 5 is gone, and we have
2, 1, 7, 4. If you want to remove all the items in the list, you can call
the clear method, so, clear
this method doesn't take any values, so, we simply
call it and it empties our list, all the items are removed.
We also have another useful method called hop,
and with this we can remove the last item in a list.
Let me show you. So, we run our program, you can see the number 4
is removed from the end of our list. Now if you want to
check for the existence of an item in our list, you can call the index method.
So, we call index and pass a value here, like 5
and this returns the index of the first
occurrence of this item. So let's print this on the terminal.
We don't need this line anymore. So the
index of 5 is 0. What if we pass a number that doesn't exist
in this list? Let's say 50? Run the program,
we get an error. We get a value error. 50 is not
in the list. There is also another way to check for the existence of an item,
we can use the in operator. So, let me show you
we type our 15 in numbers,
earlier we used the in operator with a string, we
check for the existence of a character or a sequence of a character in a string,
now here we're checking for the existence of 50 in the list of numbers, so
let's print this, we get a boolean value,
false, so unlike the index method, this expression,
doesn't generate an error, so it's safer to use this. We also have another
method for counting the occurances of an item, let's say we have
another 5 over here.
Now we can call numbers.count and pass 5
and this should return 2 because we have 2 5s in this list.
Take a look. There you go. That is pretty useful
now if you want to sort your lists you can call sort method. So,
we call the sort method here, this method doesn't take any values so,
look at he return value, that is none, none
is an object in python that represents the absence of a value.
So this sort method doesn't really return any values it simply sorts this
list, in place, so instead of printing the return value
oft his method, we simply call it to sort our list
and then print our list. Take a look.
Now, all the items are assorted in ascending order. We can also
sort the items in descending order, so after we sort the list
we can call the reverse method. We can simply reverse
our list. Now let's go ahead and run our program, take a look.
Our numbers are sorted in descending order.
And one last method I want to show you here that is pretty useful is the copy
method. So copy, with this method you can get a copy
of our list. So let's define another variable called numbers 2,
now numbers 2, is a copy of our original list. So if
you make any changes to our original list, if you add new items to it, if you remove
existing items, these operations are not going to impact our second list.
Let me show you. So after we show you a copy of our numbers list
let's add a new item to this list, so numbers.apphend
ten. So the first list is updated, so now we have a
new item in our first list, then lets print the second list.
Take a look, we don't have the number 10 here, because these are
2 independent lists. So these are all the operations
that we can perform on lists. We can add new items to a list, we can
remove exxisitn items, we can check for the existence of an item, we can sort
our list, and copy them. Now here's an exercise for this tutorial,
I want you to write a program, to remove the duplicates on our list.
Again, this is a fantastic exercise. So spend a few minutes on this and then
come back and continue watching.
Alright let's say we have a list of numbers with
a bunch of duplicates. So 2, 2, 4, 6,
6, 3, 4, 6, 1. We want to remove
the duplicates. So we need to define another list
let's call that new list. Initially we
set it to an empty list. Then we need to iterate over
our first list, get each item, and if we don't have that number
in this unix list, then we'll add it to this second list.
As simple as that. So, for number
in numbers, now we need to check to see if we
have this number in the second list. So we use the in
operator. If number not
in units
so if we don't have an operator in this units list,
then we'll need to add it, so units.
apphend number, that's all we have to do.
So, let's go ahead and print the units list
there you go. So you have 2, 4,
6, 3,and 1. The duplicates are removed.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about another important structure.
in Python called tuple. Tuples are similar to lists
so we can use them to store a list of items. But unlike lists we can
not modify them, we cannot add new items, we cannot remove existing items, we
tuples are immutable. We cannot mutate or change them. So
let me show you. So I'm going to start by defining a list of numbers,
1, 2, 3, 4, so we use square brackets to define lists and
parenthesis to define tuples, so if we change this to
parenthesis, 1, 2, 3. Now we have a
tuple. So if we type numbers.
look here we don't have the append or insert methods, so we cannot add new items to this tuple.
We also don't have remove clear and pop, we cannot
remove any of these items here. We only have two methods, count,
and index. We use count to count the number of occurrences in an item,
and index, to find the index of the first occurrence,
of an item. So we can only get information about a tuple, we can't change it.
And by the way, these other methods that you see here, they start
with two underscores, we refer to these as magic methods, they're more of an advanced
topic, so they go beyond the scope of this tutorial. If you're interested
to learn bout them. You can get my python course, I've covered them in detail.
So similar to lists you can address individual items using
squre bracketts,s o we can get the first item like this and then
print another terminal, there you go, the first item is 1,
but if you try to change the first item we'll get an error, so,
numbers of 0, we set it to 10 and run our program
there you go. We get this type error, because the tuple object
does not support item assignment. So we cannot
mutate or change tuples, they are immutable. Now practically
speaking, most of the time you'll be using lists, but tuples are also
useful. If you want to create a list of items and make sure
no where in your program you accidentally modify that list, then it's better to
use a tuple,
In this tutorial I'm going to show you a powerful
feature we have in python called unpacking.
So lets find a tuple called coordinates
and here we pass 3 values, 1, 2, 3. So you imagine these are
the coordinates for x y and z. Now let's say
we want to get these values and use them in a few expressions, a few complex
expressions in our program. Maybe we want to include them as part of a large
complex formula. So together we'll have to write code like this,
coordinates of 0, then let's say we want to multiply this
by coordinates of 1, and then multiply it by coordinates
of 2, our code is getting a little bit too long, this is just
a very simple example. But let's say we want to use these values in quite a few places
in our program, a better approach is to get these values
and store them in separate variables like we can get
coordinates of 0, and store it in x, then you can
get coordinates of 1 and store it in y.
And similarly we get coordinates of 2,
and then store it in z. Now we started repeating coordinates of
2 or coordinates of 0 multiple times, we can simply work with these
variables, x times y times z, that is better.
Right? So nothing new so far. But in Python we have a powerful
feature called unpacking and with that we can achieve
the same result with far less code. So we can define our variables
x, y, and z. And set them to our
tuple. What we have on line 6 is exactly
identical to what we have on lines 2-4.
So this is a shorthand to achieve the same result.
So let me delete this and explain how this code works.
When Python interpreter sees this statement, it will get the
first item in this tuple and assign it to the
variable. Then it will get the second item in this tuple, then
similarly we get the third item in this tuple and assign it to
the third variable we have here, so we are unpacking
this tuple into 3 variables. Now if we
print x you can see x
is 1, similarly y is 2, there you go.
So this is unpacking. And by the way this is not
limited to tuples, we can use this feature for lists as well. So,
if I change parenthesis to square brackets, now
coordinates is a list, so we can unpack our list into 3 variables
now we run our program we can see y is 2.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you about dictionary
in python. We use dictionaries in situations where we want to
store information that comes as key value pairs. Here's
an example. Think of a customer. A customer has a bunch of attributes
like name, email, phone number, address
and so on. Now each of these attributes has a value.
For example the name can be jon smith the email can be
jon@ gmail.com the phone can be whatevr
so what we have ere is a bunch of key value pairs. So in this
example, our keys are name, email, and phone,
and each key is associated with a value. So this is where we use
a dictionary. With a dictionary, we can store a bunch of key value pairs.
So let me show you how to define a dictionary in python.
Back to our program, I'm going to define a variable, customer,
and here we set it to curly braces. With these curly braces we can
define dictionary. In this example we have an empty dictionary that doesn't have
any key value pairs. Now we can add one or more key
value pairs in between the braces. So let's
add a key value pair here, I'm going to set the key to a name, and
the value to John Smith, then we add a comma,
to add another key value pair. So let's set age to
30 let's add another key value pair is
underline verified and we set this to a boolean.
Now what matters here is that these keys should be
unique. So if I add another key value pair here,
set age to 40, now look pycharm
has highlighted the age key, because we have duplicated that and
that's not allowed. So each key should be unique in a dictionary, just like,
the dictionaries we have in the real world, in a real dictionary we have a bunch of words
and they're definition each word is only listed once in a dictionary.
We don't have the word book twice. So let's delete the second
duplicate key value pair, so the keys should be unique,
and in this example, I'm using strings, but they can also be
numbers, we're going to look at that later, but the value can be anything, it can be
a string, a number, a boolean, a list, literally anything.
Now we can access each item in this dictionary
using square brackets. So, we type customer,
square brackets and then specify key like name
and this will return the value associated with
the name key. Let's print it on the terminal, have a look,
there you go, so, the name is John Smith, now
what if we pass a key that doesn't exist, lets say first date.
You run the program, you get a key error because we don't have
a key called birth date. Also, if we spell
name with let's say a capital N, we get the same
error because we don't have a key with the exact same sequence of
characters in this dictionary. Now to get around this we can
use the get method, so instead of using the square brackets
we call the get method and specify the key
Now if you use a key that doesn't exist here, it doesn't yell at us. For example,
if you pass birth date
it simply returns the non value. Earlier I told you that none is an object
that represents the absence of a value. So
instead of getting a key error we get none and we can also option
supply a default value, for example, if this dictionary doesn't have this
key, we can supply the default value, let's say
January 1st 1980. Let's run the program
now instead of getting none we get this default value.
So, this is how we can access the value associated with the key
in a dictionary. We can also update these values for example
before a print statement we can write code like this, customer of
name, let's update the name to jack
smith, now this little warning is telling us here we can put jac
smith here instead of defining it once, and then update
it. Don't worry about them, it doesn't really matter. Now with this line if
we print the name of this customer, we should see jack smith, let me show you.
So, I'm going to use the square bracket notation again, let's print
the name of the customer you can see that is updated here,
we can also add a new key here, let's set the
birthdate to some value like january first
1980. And then we can print it here,
so as you see we can easily add new key value pairs
to a dictionary. So this is the basics of using dictionaries
in python. They're extremely important and they have a lot of applications in the real
world. Okay, here's an exercise for you. So here we have
this program that asks our phone number. Let's type 1
234. We type it in digits and then this will translate
it, to words, take a look. Enter, it prints, 1, 2, 3,
4. That's a pretty cool program, so go ahead and
spend a few minutes on this exercise, it's pretty easy, I will see you
next.
Alright, so first we need to get the users phone number, we call the input function
with the label phone, we get the result and store it
in this variable, now let's say the user enters 123
4. So we need to look through this string, get each character and
translate it to a world, so what we need to implement this scenario.
is a dictionary, because a dictionary is a structure that allows us to
a key to a value. So we can have a dictionary with keys
like 1234. And we map each of these keys
to a word. So we cannot put digit 1 to
the word 1 we can map 2
to two you get the point. So let's define
a dictionary, you can call it digits, underline mapping
now this dictionary I'm going to add a few key value pairs.
One, we map it to 1, 2, we
to 2, 3, to 3,
and finally, 4 to 4. Now technically we should
add all the digits from 0 to 9, but I don't want to waste all your time
typing repetitive things here, you got the point. So lets move on,
now we need to look through the phone string. So
4 character in phone, we get each
character and then use it to access a key value pair in
dictionary. So, digits underline mapping
we can use square brackets or call the get method,
I would prefer to use the get method, so in case the user enters some character
that is not part of our dictionary, our program is not going to yell at them.
So, we call the gt method and pass this character
a the key, and if we don't have this key, we can supply
a default value like exclamation mark, so with this we get a word
now we need to add this word to an output string, so we can define
an output string, initially we set it to an empty string,
in each iteration we get this and add it to our output string.
So, we type output, plus equals.
This and we should also add a
space at get. So the words are not close to each other, okay?
That's all we have to do. Now finally let's print
this output, run our program, so I want to
type 1, 3,4, 5, lets
see what we get. We get 1, 3, 4 with an exlamantion
mark.
In this tutorial I'm going to show you something really cool
that you can do with dictionaries, so here in this program you can type
a message like good morning followed by a smiley face,
when we press enter, we get this beautiful smiley face, or
we can type i am sad, with a sad smiley face
and it gets translated to this beautiful emoji.
So this is another application if using dictionaries, we have a dictionary
that maps these characters into smiley faces.
So lets go ahead and build this program together, we start by
calling the input function, here we pass a greater than symbol
as an indicator for the user to type a message, we give that message, store
it here, as you know that is a string, now we need to
split this string by a space, so if the user types
good morning with a smiley face, we want to break this down into
3 words, good morning, and smiley face.
To do that we can call the split method. So we call
message.split and pass
a string with one space as a separator. What this method
does is basically it goes through this string and anywhere it finds this
character, in this case a space, it uses it as a boundary to
separate this string into multiple words. And then it will return
a list. Let me show you. So let's store that here, words, and then
Then print it on the terminal,
let's go ahead and run our program. So if you type good morning
sunshine, enter, we get a list with three items
each item is a string, okay? Now,
back to our program, we need to define a dictionary for mapping special characters
like these 2 into a smiley face, so,
we can call that emojis
set it to curly braces, here we add a key value pair,
a smiley face, and we map that to a string,
in this string we want to add an emoji, if you're on a mac keyboard you can press
control command and space and this should bring up
this emoji box, if you're on Windows honestly I
really don't know how you can do this, but there must be applications who do this for you. So lets go
ahead and pick this happy smiley face, good,
now lets add another key value pair, or sad face
we map this to,
this face here, good. So, we
have a list of words now we need to look through this list, get
each word and potentially map it to an emoji.
So we can write a for loop for word in words,
now we want to go to our dictionary, and see if you have an item with this
word as the key. If you have an item with that key, we get
it's value, otherwise we want to use the same word. So if a user types
good morning, we don't want to translate those words, we just want to return those. So that is the case,
where we use the get method to supply a default
value, so we wan to get an item with a key word, and
if we don't have an item with that key, we simply use that word as
the default value. Now similar to the exercise that we did in the last tutorial
we need an output variable. So let's define that here,
output set it to an empty string, now back to line
9, we get the return value of the get method,
and add it to our output variable. So output
plus equals whatever we get from the get method, and finally
we need to append a space at the end.
That's it, we're done. So let's print the output
and run our program and I'm going to type good morning
sunshine with a smiley face, we get that
beautiful, let's try the sad face as well, I am sad.
Too bad. Beautiful! So as you can see
dictionaries have a lot of use cases in real applications.
Here's a solution from the last tutorial where we created an emoji
converter. Now so far we have been writing all our code right here,
in app,py, but as our programs grow we need a better way to organize our code.
We need to break up our code into smaller, more manageable
and more maintainable chunks which we call functions. So function
is a container for a few lines of code that perform a specific
task for example you have learned about a few of the built in functions in
python like print, and input, each of these functions
have a purpose, they know how to perform a specific task. So when we
build large complex programs, we should break up our code into smaller
reusable chunks which we call functions to better organize our code.
And that's what I'm going to show you in this tutorial. So let's write this simple
program, for printing a greeting message. So we're going to do a print,
hi there, and lets add another message
welcome aboard. So here we have a simple
program with only two lines of code. Now let's say these two lines
potentially we're going to need them in other programs so we can put them in a function that
we can reuse. Let me show you how to do that, so,
we start typing out death, that is a reserve keyword in
Python, and it's short for define. When Python interpreter sees this it
knows that we're defining a function, next we need to give our function
a name, lets say greet_user.
So all the best practices you learned about naming your variables also apply here,
which means we should name our functions with lower case characters
if there are multiple words, we need to separate them using an underscore
and you should always, always, always use meaningful
descriptive names for your functions. So, here we define a function
called greet user, after that we'll need to add parenthesis
followed by a colon. Now you know that whenever we add a colon at the end of a line
we're telling python that we're defining a block of code. So when we
press enter, the next line is indented. Now any code that we write here
will belong to this function. So I'm going to move these two lines
these two print statements inside of our function. You can simply
press tab to indent them, beautiful, also lets remove
this extra line break, that is better, so these two lines
now are part of our greet user function, so whenever we
call this function, these two lines will be executed. Okay? Now,
let's remove indentation so here we are outside of our function,
let's do a print statement and print start
after that let's call our function, so greet user.
And finally let's do another create statement and print
finish. Now we have this little warning here, this
underline, if you hover your mouse over this line, this tool was telling you
that we should add two blank lines after a function definition. This is coming from
pep8 which is a document that defines the best practices for
formatting our code. We'll look at that in the future. So for now to make pycharm
happy, lets add an extra line break to this function
so whenever we define a function we need to add two lines breaks after.
Okay? so, now let's run our program and see what happens.
Alright, so we have 4 messages on the terminal
first we get the start message then we get the messages
coming from our create function, so either and welcome aboard, and finally we see
the finished message. So let me explain the flow of our program
when python runs this code it doesn't actually print these
two messages on the terminal because these two lines of code are inside
of this function, so they would only get executed if we call
this function. If we don't call this function, these lines don't get executed.
Okay? So the execution of our program actually starts here,
the first message that we see on the terminal is the start message. After
that, Python sees that we are calling the greet function, so
it will jump over here and then execute these two lines.
Then, it will jump out of this function and continue the normal
execution of our program so it will print the finish message on the terminal.
So this is how functions work. Also note that the order of this
code matters, so here we're calling the greet function after
after we have defined it. If you try and call it before you define it you will see an error.
For example, if we call the greet
user function right here, see we immediately get this red underline
which says unresolved reference, greet user which basically
means python doesn't know what is this greet user, it's not defined anywhere.
So we always define our functions first, and then
call them.
Here's a function we created in the last tutorial
now I got a question for you, what is the difference between
calling this functions nd the print function of python? The difference
is that the print function takes some information, in this case
the message that we want to print, but our greet function doesn't take
any information. Wouldn't it be nicer if you could pass the name of the user here and then
instead of saying hi there, you could print the name of the user. So,
in this tutorial, I'm going to show you how to pass information to your functions, and
that is pretty easy, so back to the definition of our greet
user function, inside of these parenthesis, we can add parameters
these parameters are pale holders for receiving information.
For example, you can add a name parameter, and we can pass the
name of the user when calling this function. So let's pass Jon
here, now when we call this function and pass this value
this name parameter will be set to Jon. So it
will act like a local variable that we defined inside of this function.
Just imagine, we didn't have this parameter, and instead we had
a variable like name that was set to jump. Now here we could simply
print the name of this user, so we could use a formatted string,
and print the value of the name variable, right? Now,
we don't really have this local variable defined in this function
we have a parameter, it's exactly the same thing. So
with these parameters we can receive information in our functions. Now let's go ahead and
run this program, so take a look.
We get Hi John welcome aboard, we can take this to the next
level. Now we can call this function one more time. So
greet user, and this time supply a different name. Let's say Mary.
So we are reusing our greet function and passing it a different
value. Imagine if we didn't have this function you would have to
repeat this line twice , once for hi jon and another time for hi mary.
So this is the benefit of defining functions, we can take a few
lines of code that have a specific purpose and put them inside of a
function, so now let's run our program one more time
there you go. So you get hi job, welcome aboard, then you get hi mary
welcome aboard. Now note that when a function has a parameter
we are obligated to pass a value for that parameter.
So if you remove jon from here and run
our program, we get this type error, greet user,
missing one required positional argument.
Argument in programming is the value that we supply to a function, so
back to this example, marrying this case is an
argument that we pass to the name parameter. And lot of
programmers don't know the difference between parameters and arguments and think they are the same.
But they are not, parameters are the holes or placeholders
that we define in our function for receiving information,
arguments are the actual pieces of information that we supply to these functions.
Okay? So, let's bring back
this jon string, now we can also define multiple
parameters, for example, let's rename this parameter to first name as I told
you before, you can right click here, go to refactor and then
rename, or preferably you can use a short cut. So the shortcut for
this on Mac is shift and f6.
And this brings up the renamed dial up box, here we can change this to first
underline name. Now we can add a second parameter
so comma followed by last underline name
so back to our formatted string, let's also print
the last name, beautiful, so here when calling this function,
then we can supply another argument so jon
smith and lets delete this line we don't really need it anymore
run our program, take a look, hi jon smith,
so in the last tutorial you learned that whenever
we define parameters for our functions we should always supply
values otherwise we'll get an error. Let's look at that error one more time.
So In going to delete this second argument and only pass jon.
Run our program, we get this message,
greet user missing one required, position
argument. So these arguments that you have here like jon
and smith you refer to these as positional arguments.
Which means their position or argument matters. In other
words, the first argument we add here is the value or the first parameter
and the second argument is the value for the second parameter.
So if you change their position or order, we'll get different results.
Let's take a look. Let's pass smith first and then
jon. Okay, good, delete, now let's
go with this, so instead of getting Hi Jon Smith,
we get hi smith jon. So that is the reason we refer
to these arguments as positional arguments, they're positioned or
order matters. But in python we also have keyword arguments, and
with those the position doesn't matter. Let me show you how they work. So,
let's say here you want to pass Jon as the value for the first
name parameter. We can simply specify that here. So first name
equals jon. Now what we have here is a keyword argument.
the key word argument. So this combination of having the parameter name,
followed by it's value is what we call a keyword argument, and what we get with this keyword
argument the position doesn't really matter. So here we're supplying
Jon as an argument fort he first parameter. Now similarly,
we can use a keyword argument for smith, so last
name equals smith, so that we have 2
keyword arguments. So with these keyword arguments we don't have to worry about
the order of the parameters. Now that doesn't mean we should always use keyword arguments.
Not really. Most of the time we use positional arguments, but
in certain situations these keyword arguments helming us improve
the readability of our code. So on line 7 it's quite clear
that we are supplying smith as the last name and jon
as the first name. Now in this particular example, even if we didn't have
the keyword arguments, just passing two positional arguments like jon
and smith, would be sufficient, because it's easy to guess
what is the purpose of these arguments. But sometimes you're dealing with functions
and you're passing numerical values to them, in those situations
it may not be quite clear what those values represent. Let me show you an example.
Let's say we have a function for calculating the total cost of an order,
so we still call that calculate, underline cost,
so when calling this function, you need to supply three pieces of information.
One is the total cost of all the order items lets say 50
dollars. The other is the shipping cost, let's say
5 dollars, and the last piece is discount, let's say 0,
.1. Someone reading this code, may not be sure
what these three values represent, in this case, we can improve
the readability of this code, by using keyword arguments. So we can
prefix each value with the name of parameter they target, for example,
we can set total to 50 and then
shipping to 5, and then discount to 0.1.
Now if you give this code to someone else, they
can immediately tell what these values represent. So that is the power
of keyword arguments. So here's what I want you to take away.
For the most part, use positional arguments, but if you're dealing with
functions that take numerical values, see if you can improve the
readability of your code by using keyword arguments. You simply
prefix the arguments that you pass with the name of their parameters and this will
increase the readability of your code. Now there is one more thing you need to know about
keyword arguments. These keyword arguments should always come after
positional arguments. Let me show you what I mean. So,
back to our simple greet user function, let's use a keyword argument
for the first thing. So, let's set
first name to jon and see what happens. So we immediately get this error and
positional argument after keyword argument.
So when calling this function we're supplying one keyword argument
and one positional argument, and python doesn't like this. So,
if you're mixing positional and keyword arguments, you should always use
and then the keyword arguments.
In other words, lets remove this keyword argument here,
so jon is now a positional argument, is targeting the first
parameter. Now after this positional argument we can
supply any number of keyword arguments, so if you set last name to smith
look, python doesn't have any problem with this because we are adding
a keyword argument after a positional argument.
So let's quickly recap, for the most part use positional arguments
if you're dealing with functions that take multiple numerical values
and it's not quite clear what those values represent, use keyword arguments
to improve the readability of your code, and finally if
your passing both positional and keyword arguments, use the
keyword arguments after the positional arguments.
So far you have learned how to create functions and send them information using
their parameters in this tutorial I'm going to show you how to create functions that return
values, this is particularly useful if you're doing some kind of
calculation your function and you want to return the result to whoever is using your
function. let me show you. So let's start by defining a
function, called square, this function simply calculates
the square of a number. So we need to add one parameter here,
that is is our number, now here we want to calculate number
times number, that is the square of a number.
Now to return this color outside of this function we simply
use the return statement. So return. Now,
our square function is very simple, it only had one line of code.
But in a real program, you might have a function that has ten lines of code to calculate
something. So, this return statement is very
valuable. So now we can return values to the caller of our function.
So, with this, when we call the square function,
let's say we give it 3, now this function returns a value,
just like an input function of python, this input function
waits for the user to type something and press enter and then it will
return the user's input as a string so we can get it
and store it in a variable like this, right? We have the same story with our
story, with our square function. So our square function returns the value
we can simply get it and store it in a variable. Let's call that
result. Now, we can print
result on the terminal, there you go, so result is 9,
we could also pass this function called
directly inside of the print function without defining a separate variable.
Sometimes this is useful for writing shorter code, so in this case.
So, in this case, we don't really need this result variable. We simply want to print
the square of 3. So, we could simply pass this function
call right here, as an argument for the print
function. So let's delete this variable now our code is
shorter so with this we're calling the square function, this returns a
value and we'll pass that value as an argument to the print function.
Okay? When we run this program, we get the exact same
result. There you go. Now what happens if we don't
use a return statement in our function. So in the last example we simply used
a print statement. Let's temporarily remove
this return statement and print the result
on the terminal. Like this. So let's run our program
one more time and see what we get. We see two things, the number
9, and none. What is happening here? Well
when Python interpreter executes this code, first it will call
the square function. So the control moves to the square function
here we calculate the square of this given number and then print it
on the terminal. That is the reason we see 9 right here,
now, by default, all functions return the value
none. So if we don't have a return statement
here, by default python returns none. None
is an object that represents the absence of a value, it's like nothing
or null i c, c++ java and Javascript.
So, in this example, we didn't have a return statement, and
by default python returned none from this function.
So, after this square function is executed, the value none
is returned and passed as an argument to the print function, that is the reason
we see none on the second line. So here are the two things
you need to take away from this tutorial. By default all functions in Python
return none. You can change that, so if you have a function that
calculates something, you can return the result using the return statement.
Here's the code for our emoji converter program that we wrote earlier.
If you missed that tutorial, make sure to go back and watch it, as
I told you before, there is a table of content right below this video in the
description. So we can simply click on the emoji converter tutorial to watch it.
Now, your exercise is to reorganize this code using a function.
So I want you to extract a function in this code, because this algorithm
for converting these smiley faces into emoji's is something that
we probably want to use in a couple different applications. We can use it in a chat
application in an email application and so on. We don't want to write all this code every time
we want to convert these characters into smiley faces.
So, out of all these lines of code that we have from line 1 to
line 10, the lines 10-2 belong to our
algorithm, all these lines together implement this feature.
So, you should put these lines in a separate function,
Now, why don't we have the input in this function? Because
the input will can come in different forms, currently we're using the import function
to receive the input from the terminal, but in other applications
we might receive the input from a graphical user interface, so the input can come in
different forms. We don't want to put that in our function, because this line will not be reuseable.
You want to give our function the actual message,
as a string. We don't care how we got that message. In one
program you might get it from the terminal, in another program you might get it from
a graphical user interface. So that is the reason this line up code should not
be in that function. By the same function, you shouldn't include
the last line in that function because what we do with the output is different from
one program to another. In this program, we are printing the output
in another program, you might send an output as an email, or as a response in
a chat application, so as a general rule of thumb you're function should
not worry about receiving input and
printing it. These lines of code should not belong to your functions. So go
ahead and reorganize this code by extracting a function.
Alright, on the top, first we need to define our function. So first we type
def, give our function a name like emoji_
converter, so the name of this function clearly tells me what
it does. Each function should be responsible for one and only one task,
and that task should be clearly explained in the name of the function.
So, our emoji converter function should take
a parameter, we call that message, that is a string, right? Colon
now we need to move the lines
5 all the way to the end of our for block
into the function, so let's select all these lines, you can
cut them from here, by pressing command and x on Mac, or
control and x on Windows, then we paste it here,
as you can see these lines are automatically indented
so, they are part of the emoji converter function, if this didn't happen on your
computer, make sure to select these lines and use the
tab to indent them. Alright, so here's our emoji converter function
beautiful. Now after that
in the main flow of our program, first we get the input from the user
we store it in this variable message and then we call
emoji converter and pass this message,
this function should return a value, that is what we use to calculate
the end of this function, so right after this for block we need to add
a return statement, return output,
now that our function returns a value, we can get it and store it
in a separate variable, let's call that result
and then we can simply print that here, or
we can make this code shorter, we don't really need this code here so we can simply
call the emoji converter, and print the result.
Like this. Now here we have an underline because
as I told you before we need to blank lines after
our function definitions. So currently we have only one blank line
we need to add another black line, good, let's go ahead,
and run this program, and make sure everything works as before
so I'm going to type a message like good morning with a smiley face
good, let's run it one more time, times that,
to add okay beautiful, so, here's the
final result, we defined this function called
emoji converter, this function takes a parameter called message.
And finally returns the output.
In this tutorial I'm going to teach you how to handle errors in your
python programs, so let's start by writing a small program
to get the user age from the terminal. So we call the input variable
input, and a label here,
like age, this returns a string, so we need to pass it to
the end funciton and store the result in
a variable called age, now let's print age to make sure you have
implemented everything properly we run our program, we type
20, 20 is printed here, beautiful, now look at
the exit code of this program, exit code 0 means
our program terminated successfully, there were no errors, but what if
we run this program one more time and instead of entering
a numerical value, we enter something like asd.
We get a value error with his message invalid literal
for int with base 10. Basically what this message is telling
us is that this string asd does not contain
a valid home number that can be converted to an integer. Now look at the exit
code of this program, exit code 1 means our exit code crashed,
so 0 always means success and anything but 0 means crash
now as a good python programmer you should anticipate this situation.
You don't want to let your entire program crash just because the user entered
an invalid value. So instead of letting the program
crash you should handle the situation and print a proper error message, and
that's what I'm going to show you in this tutorial, now before we get any further
look at the type of error we get here, value error,
so remember this, we're going to get back to this shortly
now how can we handle these errors, in python we have a construct called
try accept we use that to handle errors.
Let me show you how it works. So on the top
we type try: now as you know we are defining
a code block so, I'm going to move these two lines,
inside of our try block so press tab here.
And remove this black line, now these two lines are part of our
try block, right? So after try we type
accept, and then we add the type of the error
that our program may encounter, that is value error
okay? Then, we add a colon and in this block we can
define what should happen if our program encounters
an error of type value error. In this case we want to print
a proper error message, so print,
invalid value. So with this try and accept we are telling python
hey, go ahead and try running one or these two lines of code,
if you encounter, an error of type. Value error
then instead of crashing the program, try this error message on the terminal
so this is how this works. Now more accurately in programming
we reefer to this kind of error as an exception. So an exception
is a kind of error that crashes our program. So our
user enters an invalid value, this line of code
in line 2 will raise an exception, and on line 4 will catch it
and print this error message, so our program will no longer
crash. Let me show you. So let's go ahead and run this
age 20, everything
works just like before and the exit code is 0, let's
rerun this program, and enter asd,
so we get this proper error message invalid error menu and once again
the exit code is 0, so that means our program completed successfully.
Didn't crash, now, we can also handle different kinds of
errors or exceptions, for example right when we get the age
let's define a variable income and set it to 20,000.
And then define another variable called risk and set it
to income divided by age.
Let's run this program and enter 0 as the game to see what happened.
So 0 is obviously a numerical value
so when we enter this value, technically we shouldn't get any exceptions.
Take a look. Our program crashed, we
did a 0 division error, because we cannot divide a number by 0.
Once again look at the exit code, so we couldn't catch this kind of error or
this kind of exception with this accept block.
Accept block is only cashing exceptions of type value
error. And this happens when we try to convert a nonnumerical value,
to an integer. So in a situation like this. We should handle
different kinds of exceptions, we can add another
except statement for an exception of type 0
division error. Now in this block we can print a
different kind of message, like age cannot be
0. Let's run our program one more time. Now,
I'm going to enter 0 as the age so we get this
error message age cannot be 0 and look at the exit code.
It's 0, so our program didn't crash, so to recap, we
`used try accept blocks to handle exceptions that are
raised in our programs, as a good programmer you should always anticipate
these kind of exceptions and handle them properly.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about comments in python.
We use comments to add notes or comments to our programs.
For example, here I'm going to make a print statement,
sky is blue. Now, before that, I
can add a comment using a hi sign and then whatever we type here
is going to get ignored it's not going to get executed. Let me show you so
let's run this program, look we only see this
message. Sky is blue. So with this comment we can explain
something about our code, we can use it as reminders to fix things or
clear things up, or we can use it to communicate things with other developers
reading our code, why we have written this code in a certain way.
These are good use cases for using comments, we can also
have comments over multiple lines, so we can simply add more
comments, each line should start with a new hi sign. Now
one thing you need to avoid when using comments is explaining what the
code does. So here's an example of a bad comment.
Let me just delete these two lines, and with this comment I'm going to
say print sky is blue. Why
is this a bad comment, because it's telling me the obvious, it's telling me
this slide is going to print sky is blue. Now the problem with this comment is
that apart from being verbose and repetitive, if you come here,
and change sky to ocean, now this comment gets
outdated. So overtime we change this code, then we have to come back and
modify the corresponding comment. So I've seen some developers
add comments in front of their functions, for example, they define
a function let's say a square that takes a number
and simply returns number times number.
But it is obvious that this function calculates and returns the
square of the given number. So there is really no need to add a comment and
explain that. Calculates and returns the
square of a number. This is very repetitive and it creates
noiser code. Someone else reading your code they get distracted with all
these unnecessary comments, so use comments to explain whys and hows.
Not why's if you have made certain assumptions, we can use
comments to explain those assumptions. Or we can use them to add notes to remind yourself
or other developers to do something in the code.
So comments are good, but too much of a good thing is a bad thing.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you guys about classes in python.
Classes are extremely important in programming and they're not
specific to python, in fact, a lot of other programming languages
do support the notion of classes. We use classes to define new types.
For example, so far you have learned about the basic types in Python
like numbers, strings, and booleans,
these are the basic or simple types in python, you also learn
about a couple of complex types like lists and
dictionaries. While these types are extremely useful, they cannot
always be used to model complex concepts, for example, think about
the concept of a point, or a shopping cart. A shopping cart is not
a boolean, it's not a list, it's not a dictionary, it's a different kind of
thing. So we can use classes to define new types to
model real concepts. Now in this new model I'm going to show you how to
define a new type called point, and this new type is going to have methods
for working with points. For example, back to our main program. Let's
create a list, numbers, 1, 2, 3,
you know that here, when we type that dot,
functions or methods available in list objects, now similar to this,
we're going to create a new type called point, this point is
going to have metas like move, draw, get,
distance from another point, these are the operations that we can
perform on points. So let me show you how to do this.
We start by defining a class by using the class keyword,
and right after that we give our class a name. Now look at the
naming convention I've used here. I've capitalized the first letter here, this is what we call
a pascal naming convention. So the naming convention we
used for naming our classes is different from the convention we use for naming
our variables and functions. For variables and functions we always
use lower case letters and we separate multiple words using
an underscore. But when naming classes, we don't use an underscore
to separate multiple words, instead we capitalize
the first letter of every word. So in this case our class has only a single
word, if you had multiple words, let's say email client
look I've capitalized the first letter
of every word. Once again, this is called pascal naming convention
and it comes from the old pascal language that you might have heard of.
So, back to our point class. Here we add
a colon which means we're going to define a block, now
in this block we can define all the functions or methods that belong
to points, for example, we can define a function called
move for moving a port, now note that as soon as we
type open parenthesis, pycharm automatically adds self here,
this is a special keyword and we're going to get back to this shortly.
So, for now, in this method, let's print
move on the terminal, now let's define another
method like draw, so define draw
and in this method, let's print draw on the terminal, now
let's remove the indentation, we're done
with the definition of our point class, so we need to add two line breaks
okay, so with this class we defined a new
type with this new type we can create new objects, so
an object is an instance of a class, a class simply defines
the blueprint or the template for creating objects, and
objects are the actual instances based on that blue print.
So we can have tens of hundreds of points on the screen, these are the
objects or the instances. So to create an object,
we type out the name of our class and then call it like a function
this creates a new object and then returns it. So then we can store
that object in a variable, let's call that point 1,
there you go, now when we use the dot operator.
Look, we have these two methods that we
defined, draw and move, we also have a bunch of other methods that we
start with two underscores, these are called magic methods
we'll look at them later in the course. Now, let's call the draw method
of our point object, and run our program
so you can see draw is printed on the terminal. Now
apart from methods these objects can also have attributes and these attributes
are like variables that belong to a particular object. For example,
here, after we've defined .1.
We can set .1.x to
10. And .1.1 to 20.
Now we can easily print out these attributes, let's print
.1.x and run our program one more time
take a look, so the x coordinate of .1 is 10.
Now we can create another object, let's call that.2
so .2 once again we type out the name
of our class and then call it like a function. Now this object is completely
different then the first object. So if you print
.2.x
look we get this attribute error, because this point object doesn't have an
attribute called, so each object is a different
instance of our points class. Now here
we can assign a value to .2.x. Let's
send that to 1, and then run our program so we can see the
x coordinates of .2 is 1. So to recap
we use classes to define new types, these types can have
methods that we define in the body of the class and they can also
have attributes that we can set anywhere in our programs.
You have learned how to create new types using classes
now therein a tiny problem in this implementation.
We can create a pooint object without an x or y coordinate
let me show you. So point we create this
object here, and before we set point.x let's
print point .x run our program
we get this attribute error which you
saw in the last tutorial, so point object has no attribute called x
This is the problem we have here, it is possible,
to have a point object without an x or y coordinates.
And that doesn't really make sense, because whenever we talk about a point,
we ned to know where that point is located. To solve this problem, we
use a constructor. A constructor is a function that gets called
at the time of creating an object. So here on line 9, when creating this
point object, we want to pass values for x or y
coordinates, let's say 10 and 20, and with this,
this point object that we get here, will have it's
x and y coordinates initialized. So how do we do this?
We need to add a special method in this class called constructor.
So, on the top, I define a new function,
look at the name of this function, double underscore init, double under
score. So init is short for initialized, and this is the
function or the method that gets called when we create a new point object.
Now, press enter, so this automatically adds,
self in parenthesis, we're going to come back to this shortly.
Now, right after self, we want to add 2 extra parameters,
x and y, so let's type out x and y,
and then in the body of this method, we should read the values past
here, and use them to initialize our object, so when we pass
10 and 20, these arguments will be used for
x and y parameters. Now to initialize
our object, we type our code like this. Self.x equals
x. And then self.y equals y.
What is going on here, this self that you see here is a reference to the current
object. So, back to line 13,
when we create a new point object, self references that object in
memory, the same object, that we're referencing using this cariable.
So earlier we typed point.x equals 10,
with this code we set the x attribute of this point object.
Now what we have in the constructor is exactly the same, we use the self
to reference the current object and then we set the x attribute
to the x argument passed to this function. So,
using this init method, we can initialize our objects and
we refer to this method as a constructor, this method is used to construct
or create an object, okay? so,
Now, let's remove line 14, so we created
point object with these values and then print point.x let's run our program
there you go, x is 10, we can also change
these values later, so just before printing point.x we can set
point.x to 11 and then run our program
so x is updated, beautiful, alright, here's a
exercise for you. I want you to define a new type called person
these person objects should have a name attribute as well as a talk
method. This is a very easy exercise so,
you can tackle it in probably a couple of minutes.
Alright, so
first we start with a class keyboard, we define this person class
once again look at the naming convention I have used here, the first letter
of the first word in this case the only word is uppercase.
Now, in this class we define all the methods we need, currently we only have
method that is the talk method, so define talk,
pycharm automatically adds self, we come back to this shortly,
for now let's just print talk.
So this is the body of our person class. We remove the indentation
and add two line breaks after defining our
classes. Now we can create the personal object, let's call that jon,
we set it to person, we can call jon.
talk, let's run the program so we get this
message, beautiful, but our person objects should also have
a name attribute, it doesn't make sense to have a person without the name.
So that is when we use the constructor function. So on the top,
we add a new method, at the name of this method is double
underscore, init double underscore. So we
call this method a constructor. Now in this method we need to
add another parameter which is name, so we
simply set self.name to name. Once
again, self references the current object, we're setting the name
attribute of the current object, to the name argument passed to this method.
With this we can go back to line 9, and
when creating a person object we pass the name, let's see jon smith
now let's print jon.name and run our program
there you go. So jon Smith is printed on the terminal, beautiful,
so this is all you had to do as part of this exercise. But
let's make this program a little more interesting. Instead of printing
this boring message here, let's print hi, I am Jon Smith.
So, we can use a formatted string with a message
like Hi, I am, now we want to dynamically
add the name of this person. How do we do this? Well, look at
the parameter of this talk method. As I told you before,
every method in our class should have this parameter, self.
And they should be the very first parameter of each method, okay? So,
with this self we can get reference to the current object, so
we can add curly braces and type out self
.name. Thsi returns the name attribute of the current
person object. With this we can remove
line 10, where we print jon.name and simply call
jon.talk. Lets run our program.
Hi, I am Jon Smith. There we go, beautiful.
Now we can build another person object, let's say Bob, is a new person
called Bob Smith, when we say
Bob.talk. And run our program
we get a different message, hi I'm Bob Smith, so
each object is a different instance of a person class.
In this tutorial Im going to talk to you about inheritance in Python,
inheritance is a mechanism for using code and once again
it's no limited to python, most languages that support classes
also support inherence. So let ms how you how this works. Let's say
we have this dog class with a simple walk method, in this method
we're simply printing the walk message on the terminal, now let's say
in real program, instead of just one line of code here we're going to have 10 lines of
code. Now, what if in the future we want to define a
another class let's say cat and we want to add
this walk method there as well. Sow e'll have to repeat all that code,
in this new class, walk.
This is bad. because you have repeated or duplicated our
code. In programming we have a principle called dry
which is short for don't repeat yourself.
Let's say sometime in the future, we discover a problem with our walk method. If you
have repeated or duplicated this method in many other places, then we'll
have to come back and fix that problem in every single place we have
duplicated this code. So that's why in programming we should not define something
twice. So how can we solve this problem.
There are different approaches, one approach that is easier to understand for beginners is inherence
Now here's how it works. We define a new class called
maml and move the walk method right there. Then we'll have
the dog and cat classes inherit that method
from their parent just like how humans inherit certain
attributes or behaviors form their parents. That' exactly the same, so
on the top, we define a new class, let's call it
mammal then we need to move the walk method there. So,
we select it, cut it, using command and x on Mac, or
control x on Windows and then paste it here, beautiful,
now we want our dog class to inherit this class from the mammal class
so right after the class name we add parenthesis and
then type out the name of the parent class. In this case, mammal.
That's all we have to do. So with his the dog class
will inherit all he methods defined in the mammal class.
Now there is a tiny problem here, if you look at line 9, there is a
red underline here. The reason this is happening is because
python doesn't like an empty class, so right now our dog
class is empty, it doesn't have anything, we either need to add methods
specific to dogs or just to make Python happy,
we can use the path statement, and that basically means nothing.
We're telling python interpreter, hey, pass this line, don't worry about it. But with this, we
don't have an empty class, okay? Now as I told you before
after each class I should have two line breaks so right now we
only have one line break and that is the reason we have this little warning here, so let's add
another black line, beautiful, so our dog class is
inheriting the walk method from the mammal, you need to apply the same change
to the cat class. So we'll have cat
inherit from mammal, and then,
use the path statement here. With these changes,
now we can create either a dog or cat object, let's say dog,
one, we set it to a dog object, and
when we type dot look we have the walk method that is defined
in the mamall class. We can easily call it, let's run our program
there you go, you see the walk message,
so both the dog and cat classes are inheriting all the classes
methods defined in their parent class. Now here we can add methods
specific to dogs, for example, we can define a method called
bark, and then print bark.
Now, we don't need the path statement because we already defined
one method in our dog class. So now when we type out
dog1. look we have two methods
one is the walk method that we inherited and the bark method that we just
defined in the dog class. Similarly, we can add a method
specific to a cat, for example, we can define a method called
be annoying, I hate cats, so let's print
annoying , now when we create the cat
object, let's remove that, cat1
and type out cat1. you have these two methods
dog and be annoying. So these are the basics of inheritance in python
Now there is more to this that really goes beyond the scope of this beginners tutorial.
If you're interested to learn more about inheritance and other mechanisms
for reusing code, I encourage you to get my complete Python course.
In this tutorial, I'm going to talk to you about modules in python.
A module in python is basically a file with some python code.
And we use modules to organize our code into files.
Just like sections in a super market. When you go to a super market there are different sections
for fruits, vegetables, cleaning products, and so on. We don't have
one section with all the products in the super market. We have the same concept
in programming. So instead of writing all our code, instead of writing
all the functions and classes in app.py we want to break up our code
into multiple files. We refer to each file as a module.
With this, not only is our code better organized and structured,
but we'll also have the ability to reuse our code. For example,
over here in app.py, I've defined two functions for converting
weight from pounds to kilograms and vice versa.
Now we can take these two functions and put them in a separate module
called converters, and then we can import that module into any
program that needs these converter functions. Let me show you how to do this.
So, let's open up our project panel and right
click the project, go to new, and add the new file,
we're going to call this file, converters.py.
Then, we go back to app.py
select all this code, cut it and then
paste it into our new module. converters.py.
With this we have cleaned up our app module it's not bloated with different
functions, so as we write more functions with classes, we put them in their
corresponding modules, a module should contain all the related
functions and classes, okay? Now you want to
import the converters module into our app module, and that is really easy, on the
top we write import converters
without extension, so we don't add .py we only type out the name of
the file. Let me close that project panel. Now,
this converter is an object so we can use the dot operator
to access it's members. So currently we have defined
these two functions inside of our module, kilogram to pound,
and pounds to kilograms. So we can easily call one of these functions
let's pass 70 kilos get the result and print it out.
Run our program, so,
that is under 55 pounds. Now there is also another
syntax for importing modules, let me show you, so
instead of importing the entire module we can import specific functions from that
module. Here's how it works. We type out from
then we add the name of our module, so converters
import, now here if you press control and space
we can see the list of all the functions defined in this module.
So here we can grab one of these functions let's say kilogram to pound, and
with this we can directly call this function just like
the function defined in this file. App.py. Compare
what we have on line 4 to what we have on line 6. On line 6
we'll have to prefix this function with the name of an object
converters. So we have to type converters. and then we'll be able to
access this function. In contrast. When we import
a specific function from our module, then we can easily call that function
without prefixing it with the module name. So here's what
you need to take away. We use modules to better organize our code. Instead of
writing all the code, instead of writing all the functions in one file, you break up
our code across multiple files. Each file is called
a module and it should contain all the related functions and classes
then we can import a module into another module, in this case, we are importing
the converters module into our app module. And as you saw,
there are two ways to import this module, we can import the entire module, and then
we'll get an object with the same name as the module so we can
type converters . and then we'll be able to access all the
functions and classes defined in this module. The other appraoch
is to impot a specific function or class from a module using the
from import statement. Now here
is your exercise. Earlier in the course you had an exercise for finding the
largest number in the list. So here on the top we have
a list of numbers, initially we set max to the first number in this list
then, we look through this list, get each number,
if the current number is grater than max, then we reset max.
And finally when we are done with our loop we print max on the terminal.
Now here's what I want you to do. This code currently
has no organization. We don't have any functions, we don't have any modules, we wrote all
the code in app.py, that is okay for small programs,
but as your programs grow, you need to properly organize your code into
classes and modules. So, as part of this exercise, I want
you to write a function, call it find max.
This function should take a list, and return the largest number in that list.
Now after you do this, go ahead and put this function
in a separate module. So extract it from here, and put it in a module,
called utils. So in this module we're going to have a bunch of
utility functions, oaky? Then import the utility
module into the current module and call this function.
Finally, get the result and print it on the terminal, this is a
fantastic exercise to teach you how to properly organize your code. So,
go ahead and spend a couple minutes on this exercise.
So the first
step is to define a function called find max. So on the
top, I'm going to define function, find max
this function should take a list of numbers, so we
add a parameter called numbers. Now inside of this function you
want to have these few lines, this is the algorithm for finding the
largest number in a list, we don't want to bring the first line, because this
is where we create a list. So somewhere in our program we're going to create this list,
and tehen pass it as an argument to pass max
function. Okay? So, let's go ahead and grab
these few lines, cut them, and put them inside
of find max function. Alright, so we find the
largest number in this list, finally we need to return it, so,
return max. So here's our function. Now we
need to move this into a separate module. So let's go to the panel
right click the project and add a new
file, we can also add a new python file that's the same, let's call that
utils so if you add a new python file
pycharm automatically adds .py extension, but if you go to
new file we'll have to explicitly type out
.py. So make sure to get the extension right.
Now, back to app.py, let's cut this code and
paste it into this new module, okay beautiful.
Now I'm going o go back to app.py and import our new module.
We can either import the entire module, so import utils
and then access individual functions so we can call utils
.find max or we can explicitly
import this function from the utils module. It doesn't really make a difference.
So, we could type from utils
import find max. And then we
don't need to prefix this with the name of it's object, so we simply call
find max. Now we need to call this after we initialize our list.
So first we need to define the list of numbers.
Then, we pass that list as an argument to find max
we get the result which is max and finally we print it
on the terminal. let's go ahead and run our program, so the
largest number is 10, beautiful,
now one last thing before we finish this tutorial, here we have this little warning
under max and the tool tip says shadows built in name
max. The reason we see this is because we actually have a function called
max. And it does the exact same job
as our find max function. So this is actually built into python.
But I ask you to do it as an exercise because it's a great exercise for beginners.
Now, back to the warning, this warning is basically telling us that we are
overwriting the built in max function in python
so we are changing the meaning of this function, and this is considered a bad practice,
let me show you what I mean. So let's comment out what we have on line 4,
by putting a hash sign here, we can also use,
a short cut command and slash on Mac, or control on slash
on Windows. So now this line is commented out. Look at the
color of max here, it's purple, it's the same color as print. And this is the color
used to identify the built in functions. So now we can call
this function and give it a list of numbers
run our program we get the same exact result however,
if we bring this line back, once again we can use the same
shortcut that is command and slash on Mac or control slash on Windows.
Now, we are redefining max, so up to
this line, max used to be a function, but after line 4 is executed
max is set to an integer, that is the largest number in this list.
So, we'll no longer be able to call it on line 5,
let's run our program and see what happens. So there you go,
we get this type error, int object is not
callable, because max is now an integer, it's not a function,
so we cannot call it. So to solve this problem, we can rename
this variable to something else. So right click here.
Go to refactor and rename,
and rename this to maximum.
So you can see the warning is gone. As you can see we have the same warning
in our utils module. So here we're redefining max
and as I told you before this is a bad practice. We're changing the
meaning of built in functions in python. So,
let's rename these as well, I'm going to use the short cut that is shift and
f6 there you go and here we can change this to
maximum. Enter, done.
In this tutorial we're going to talk about packages in python,
packages are basically another way to organize our code, so currently
we have only 3 files for modules in our project but a real project
can contain hundreds or even thousands of modules.
We don't want to add all those modules here, because over time this directory will get
bloated with so many files, so a better approach is to organize related
modules, inside of a package, so a package is a container
for multiple modules In file system terms a package is
a directory or folder. So in our project we can add a new directory
and in that directory we can add all the directed modules, as a metaphor think
of a mall. When you go to a mall or a shopping center there are different
sections for mens women and kids clothing, so that is
ilke a package, now when you go to the mens section, there are different areas
fior different kinds of products, we have a section for shoes, t shirts,
jackets, and so on, so each of these is like a module, so,
in this tutorial, I'm going to show you how to create and use packages in Python,
here in our project panel, right click the panel and
add a new directory.
Let's call this directory e commerce. So we're going to create
a package called e-commerce and in this package we're going to have
all the modules related for an ecommerce application. For example,
we can have modules for sales, shipping, customer service
and so on. So let's go ahead
Now here we have an empty directory, in order to convert this to a package
we need to add a special file in it. So, right
click this directory and add a new python file,
call that file double underscore in it, double underscore
this is a special convention in Python.
When Python interpreter sees a file with this name and
name in a directory, it treats this directory as a package, we also have a
shortcut for that in pycharm so let me delete this directory
and start again. So delete, once again right click
the project, and go to new but instead of creating a new directory
we can create a new python package, let's call
our package ecommerce as you can see
pycharm automatically creates this file for us so we don't have to manually create
it. Okay? Now, in this package, let's add a new module,
so a new python file, let's call it
shipping okay? Now in this module we want to have
a function for calculating the shipping costs. So define
calculate, underline, shipping.
Now don't worry about parameters or implementation, we simply print
calculate underline shipping.
Now lets say you want to import this shipping module
into our app module, with this new structure this shipping
module is now part of the ecommerce package, so we cannot import a direct
you have to start from the ecommerce package. So,
bak to app,py once again there are two ways to import this module.
We can import the entire module or we can
import one of it's functions or classes. So let me show you both approaches.
First, we're going to import the entire module. Now what is the name of our
package? it is ecommerce, right? So ecommerce.
shipping. So instead of typing import
shipping we type import ecommerce
.shipping. we have to prefix it with the name of it's package.
Now to access any of the functions or classes in this module
we'll have to type out ecommerce.shipping.
and there you go. Now we can access the calculate shipping
function. So let's go ahead and run our program,
we see this message printed on the terminal, beautiful. However
with this approach, every time you want to call one of the functions
to this module, we'll have to prefix it with ecommerce.
shipping. that is very verbose. So when working with packages
we often use the second approach, using the
from statement. So we can type from ecommerce
.shipping import
calculate shipping. Now we don't have to prefix this function
with ecommerce.shipping, and we can call it multiple times
in this module, so our code is a little bit shorter. But what if
you want to use multiple functions in this shipping module. We can either import them here,
so calculate shipping, comma, let's say calculate_
tax. Or we can import the entire module and then
access all he functions or classes in that module. So,
let me revert this back. To import the entire module
we type from ecommerce so we remove.shipping
so from this package, import
the shipping module. Now the shipping module,
is an object so we can access
all the functions and classes defined here, using the dot operator, so
shipping. there you go, calculate shipping. So to
recap, when using the from statement we can either start from
the package and import a specific module, or we can
start from package.module
and then import a specific function. Like calculate shipping.
So, this was the basics of using packages in
python. As I told you before, packages are extremely important, especially
when you want to work with a framework like django, we use django for building
web applications with python, and I'm going to show you that later in this course.
So in Django we have quite a few packages and
each package contains several modules. So make sure to watch the tutorials,
about modules and packages one more time, otherwise you're going to get confused later
when we get to Django.
In this tutorial I'm going to talk to you
guys about the built in modules in python, so python
comes with a standard library that contains several modules for common
tasks such as sending emails, working with date and time,
generating random values and passwords and so on. There are so many modules
already built into Python and that means there is already lots of functionality
that we can reuse. Let me show you where you can find
this standard library. So open up this browser
and search for python 3, module index,
make sure to add the version number, because the modules in python 2 are
different from modules in python3. So here we search for python 3
module index, and the first page here, you can see is
python module index, or python 3, let's go ahead,
so these are all the modules built into python,
for example we have modules for working with date and time,
we have modules for sending emails for encoding values,
there are so many modules here. Now the explanation of all these is
beyond the scope of this course, that really requires it's own course.
Because we have so many modules here, but don't let this list intimidate you.
This is not something that you need to learn right now, as you learn python
as you build more applications, gradually you will get familiar with more modules
here, in fact nobody knows all the modules in python
standard library. Everybody knows some modules based on the applications they have built.
So in this tutorial, I'm going to show you how to use one of the built in modules,
for generating random values. So on the top,
we import the random module, now because
random is a built in module, we don't need to have a file here
called random.py. So python interpreter knows that random is a built
in module as long as it knows where to find it.
Now if you're curious where this random module is stored on the disk, let me show you, so
here in the project panel, expand external
libraries, then expand python 3,
and then one more time python 3.7 library
route. So this is a folder somewhere on your computer, in this folder, we have
all the built in modules in python. So,
if you scroll down, you should be able to find.
The random module. There you go. It's right here. So random.
py. You can open this and this shows you the source
code of this module. there you go. Now in this tutorial,
we don't want to worry about hat, so let's go back to our app.py,
and use this module to generate random values. So when we import
this module, now we have this object, random, so we can use the dot
operator to acces it's methods. One method that is useful
here is the random method, and every time we call it it generates
a random value between 0 and 1. So here we can do a for loop,
let's say for I in,
range 3. So just to refresh your memory we are using the
range function to create a range object. We can look through this range object
and in each iteration this object will spit out a value.
So with this for loop, we can execute this code 3 times. Now, let's
indent this. Okay, and finally, let's print the result,
There you go. So we can see
that in each iteration we get a new random value between 0 and 1.
Now what if we want a random value for a particular age?
Let's say random values between 10 and 20, well,
there is another method here, rand int, we use 2 arguments here
to specify our range, let's say 10 and 20.
Run our program one more time. Now we have the numbers 20
13 and 18. If we run our program one more time,
We get different values, so 20, 19, 11, one more time.
Look, you also have another powerful method for
randomly picking an item from a list. Let's say we have a list of team members and you want to
randomly pick someone as the leader. Let me show you how to do that.
So, we define the list of team members, we set it to
jon, mary, bob,
and mosh. Now we can call random
.choice and pass our members list
this method randomly picks a method from this list and returns it. SO,
we can store the result in leader and then
print it on the terminal. let's run our program,
so now the leader is mary, if you run our program one more time
this line is mosh now it's mosh again one more time,
it really likes mosh, you get the point. So
the random module is very powerful, and it has a lot of applications.
Now here's a very cool exercise. I want you to write this program to
roll a dice. So every time we run this program we get a different value.
Now we have 3 in 1, next time we get 3 and 6, one more time
5 and 6, 4 and 3, double one, that's a very cool exercise.
So before we get started, I want you to pay attention to a few things.
I want you to define a class called dice
in this class we're going to have a method called rope so every time we
call this method, we get a tuple, a tuple remember is a list of
values but values cannot be changed, you cannot add a new item to it, we
cannot remove it. So it's like a read only list. So every time,
we call the row method, we should get the tuple of two random values.
So go ahead, and do this exercise, You'll see my solution next.
Alright, we start by importing the random module on the top,
then we define a class called dice:
this class we want to have a method called row. So define row
parenthesis, this automatically adds self, now in this method,
you want to generate two random values between 1 to 6.
So we call random.randint.
And pass 1 and 6. So this generates the first number,
we can ut that here, now let's call this one more time,
so I'm going to copy what we have on line 5, put it here, and
change this variable to second. So we have two variables first and second.
With two random values, finally we need to return them,
in a tuple, so return parenthesis instead of square brackets,
first and second, now
in python when you want to return a python from a function, you don't have to add
this parenthesis, so you can simplify your code and python will automatically
interpret this as a tuple. So we are done
with a definition of our class, we remove the indentation and add
two line breaks. Now we create an object of this type
so you set dice to dice
next we roll the dice, so dice.roll and
print the result on the terminal, that's all you have to do.
Let's run this program, so now we get 2 and 5,
lets run it one more time, 3 and 2, 1 and 1, beautiful.
Now we have this little warning here, that says
expected 2 black lines found 1. Once again this is
coming from pep 8, pep is short for python and
proposal. We have so many python enhancement proposals or peps.
Pep 8 is a very famous 1, and in this document we have
all the best practices for formatting our code. So pep
8 says, that after we define our classes we should have 2 lines breaks, we've already done that
so the reason this is complaining is because we had 1 line break before
the class, so let's add one more line break, now pycharm
is happy. So basically pycharm is following all the best
practices defined in pep8. Now you don't have to memorize
any of these best practices, as you code in pycharm, pycharm gives you a little more
warning, and gradually you will learn how to properly format your code, so it's
readable by other people.
In this tutorial, I'm going to show you
how to work with directories in python. So here in python3,
module index, you can see we have a module called path lib which provides an object
oriented file system pact. That basically means it provides
classes that we can use to create objects to work with directories and
files. So, if you click here, you can see how this module
works, we can see all kinds of examples. For example, here on there basic
useage, you can see this is how we import the path
class from the path lib module. Let me zooming so you can see
clearly. Okay, so look, from path lib, that's
our module, import path, note the naming convention.
P is capitalized, that means path is a class, so we need to create
an instance of this class as you can see, right here,
now there's so much documentation here, you can read this on your own, but let me quickly show you
a few examples to help you get started. So after pycharm
on the top, from the path led module, that's
import the path class. Now we need to create,
a path object to reference a file or directory
on our computer. So there are basically to ways to do this we can use an absolute
path, or a relative path which basically
means a path starting from the current directory. For example,
if you wanna reference this ecommerce directory in our project, we can
use the relative path. So we start from the current directory and then
go somewhere else. With absolute paths we start from the root
of our hard disk. For example, if you're on Windows you might have
an absolute path like this, c drive, backslash,
program, files, backslash microsoft,
so these are directories in c drive.
On Windows we use a backslash to build a path. If you're on
Mac or Linux, your paths will look a little bit different, so
instead of backslash we have a forward slash lets say user/local
/bin. So these are examples of absolute paths. In
this tutorial we're going to work with he relative path to work with this ecommerce
directory that we have in our project. Now if you didn't create this directory
earlier, simply right click on the project and then go to new
directory. oaky? So, let's close this panel,
we create a path object, now,
if you don't pas an argument here, this will reference the current directory
alternatively, we can pass string, in this string we can
add a file or a directory. let's say the ecommerce
directory. Now this runs a path object, so we store it here,
now this path object has a few interesting methods
for example, we can check to see if a path exists by calling
the exist method. This simply returns a boolean so let's print it on the terminal,
there you go. So this path exists,
what if it changes to ecommerce 1, and
run our program and get false, we can also create a new directory
for example, let's change our path to email, now when we
run this program, obviously we don't have this directory but we can
create it by calling the mk dir method
so make directory. Let's run our program
alright, this method returns none which basically means
it doesn't return any values. Now if you look at the project panel you can see
here we have a new directory called emails, we can also delete this directory
so, instead of mk dir we call
rmdir which is short for remove directory, but
let's go ahead, now we can see that directory is gone. We can also see
all the files and directories in a given path, that is, very useful if you want to
write a little program to automate something. For example,
you can iterate over all the spreadsheets in a directory one them and
process them. Let me show you. First we change the path
to the current directory and then we call the glob
method. With his method we cans each for files and
directories in the current path. So as the first argument we need to pass a string
that defines a search pattern. We can type an asterisk
and that means everything, all files and all directories.
We can optionally add an extension, so to get all the files, you
need the files you use star.star. With this
pattern, we'll only get the files in the current directory. But not the directories.
We can also search for all the py files, or all the excel
spreadsheets. Anything. So let's search for all the py files
in the current directory, now when we run our program
we get this generator object. Generator object
are kind of an advanced topic, and they are beyond the scope of this beginners
python course. But for now all you need to know is we can iterate
or loop through these generator objects. So instead of
printing this generator object, let's just iterate over it using
a for loop, so, for, file in,
the generator object that is returned from the glob method. q
Let's print file.
We run our program, there you go. So these are all the
py files in my current directory, this could be different on your machine
if you didn't follow the exercises I gave you earlier. For example, this
utils.py, we created this as part of one of the exercises earlier in this course.
So don't worry if the files you see here are different on your machine.
So, you can use the glob method to search for files using
a pattern, we can also get all the files and directories in the current
path, so, we just use one asterisk, then
run our program, take a look, so we have this
ecommerce directory, we have notes.txt, this is a file I
added earlier just to write notes as part of my presentation so you're not going to have
this file. We also have a bunch of directories and files.
Even though python's standard library is comprehensive and has
so many modules for common tasks, it's not complete by any means.
That's why we have this directory called python package
index. Or pypi. And in this directory you can find hundreds
of packages for doing awesome things. These are packages that people like you
and I have built as part of our projects, and then they have published it as part of this directory.
For other people to use. So that's why we have a fantastic community in python,
there are so many python developers out there and there are so many packages
right in front of us to reuse in our programs, let's say
you want to send text messages in your programs, you don't have to build this functionality from scratch,
we can simply come to pypi.org and
search for sms aas you can see there are so many
projects or apckages that give you this functionality. Of course not every
package, not every project is complete or bug free, some of them are still
in development or they have bugs, but if you look around I'm pretty sure
for any kind of function you can imagine there is a good
reliable and well documented package for you. In my complete python course,
I will show you some of those most useful packages on pypi. For example
you will learn how to access the information on yelp.com in your
programs. So you can write a program and search for businesses
registered on Yelp. Let's say you want to search for the best barber
in New York City. I will show you how to do that. You will also learn how to use a technique called
web scraping, which means you can build an engine and have that engine
browse a website, and extract information from HDML files.
This is the same technique that Google does to index various
websites. So they have several engines, or web crawlers, these web crawlers
are continuously looking at various websites and extracting information
from their pages. When you publish a blog post Google's web crawler
finds the title of your post, its keywords and so on. So,
I'm going to show you how to do that with Python, we'll also look at browser automation, and this is extremely
powerful, because you can automate testing of your web
applications. So you might get a job as a test engineer, and
your daily job is to browse a website, click here and there, fill out this form, that form, and
ensure that this website is functioning properly. You can automate all that
with a powerful python package called selenium, as I have shown in my complete, as I show in my complete
python course. Now in this tutorial, I'm going to show you how to install
packages, from pypi.org. So,
here on pypi.org let's search for open py
xl. This is a package that we use for working with excel
spreadsheets. So let's search for this package, there you go, so currently
it's at version 2.5. On the top you can see,
this instruction pip install open pyexcel.
this is the command that we need to type in the terminal window to
install this package into our program, so back to pycharm,
here on the status bar. You can open up a terminal window for executing
various commands. So let's open it, now if you're on Windows
you're probably going to see something different instead of this dollar sign, don't worry about that
just execute this command I'm going to show you. So pip
install open py xl
Make sure to spell everything properly. So pip is the tool,
that comes with a python installation, and we use it to install or uninstall
packages registered on pypi.org. So here,
we're using pip to install this package. open py
xl. Enter, let's go ahead with that, it's going to take a few
seconds, oaky done, now we can import this package and it's
modules just like the built in modules in python, or the modules that we have
in our project. Now if you're curious where this package
is stored on disc let me show you. So open up the project panel,
and then expand external libraries, next
expand python 3, and then expand sight packages.
This is where all these packages that we installed with pip are stored.
So here we have open py xl, you can open this,
in this folder we have another folder called cell, now
Now, look what we have here you have this init
type, earlier I told you that whenever we add this file to a folder, python treats
that folder as a package, so sell is a package, and this
package we have is modules. Sell, interface, read only and text.
So as you can see, this package openpyxl has several
subpackages like cell, start, chart sheet and so on.
And in each package we have several modules, in the next tutorial
I will show you how to work with excel files.
So we have covered all the core concepts in Python, I hope you have learned a lot.
please support my hard work by liking this video and sharing it with others.
And be sure to subscribe to my channel for more tutorials like this. Next we're
going to work on our first python project that involves automation.
You're going to write a python program that can process thousands of spreadsheets
in under a second. Are you excited? Let's get started.
In this tutorial I'm going to show you something really awesome you can do with python. You're going to
learn how to process spreadsheets, and this is extremely valuable
in situation where you have hundreds or thousands of spreadsheets that need to
be updated. If you want to do this by hand it may take hours or days
weeks, or even months, you can simply build a python program in less then
half an hour. And have that python program, automatically process thousands of spreadsheets
in under one second. So, here we're going to work on this
excel spreadsheet. You can download this below this video.
In this spreadsheet we have three columns, transaction ID,
product ID, and press. Now don't worry about the fourth column yet.
So in this spreadsheet we're going to record all kinds of transactions, but let's say
due to an error, it could be a human error or a system error. The price that we have
here is wrong. Let's say we need to decrease this by 10 percent.
If you want to do this manually, we'll have to come back here and
add a formula, so we typed out equal sign, let's say you want to recalculate
say you want to recalculate the value of this cell.
have to get that and then multiply it by 0.9
and that is like 90% of the original price, we are reducing the original
reducing the price by 10%. Now when you hit enter you can see the updated price.
Next we'll have to come back here, select this cell and
apply the same formula to all the other rows. Now what if you have thousands of rows
here? You'll have to scroll up and down, this is going to be very tedious.
So we're going to write a python program that will do this for us. It's going to
auotmate this process and not only that it will also
add this beautiful chart right here,
once again if you want to open up hundreds or thousands of spreadsheets
and add a chart to each one, this is going to take at least a week or two
Our python program is going to do all of this in a matter of seconds.
So, let's get started. Alright the first thing I want you to do is
to download this transactions file and add it to your project.
I put the link below this video for you to download. So if you're wondering
how to put this in this project, you can simply right click the project,
and if you're on Mac you have this item where
reveal in finder, if you're on Windows you should see something like reveal
in explorer, or file explorer, or whatever it's called
when you click this, this opens up the direct
on your machine where this is stored. So simply copy paste
the transactions file right here. Now,
here on the top, first we need to import the open py excel package.
So import open py excel, we can give it a
an alias to make our code shorter. So asxl.
This is not required but it just makes our code a little bit cleaner.
Let me show you. So now instead of typing open pyxl.
we type xl. okay so that's an alias for
this package. Now in this package we have a function for loading an xl
workbook. So let's call load workbook,
and as the argument we pass transactions.
.xlsx. So this we load
our excel workbook and return a workbook object.
Okay? Now if you open this workbook, you can see you add only 1
sheet, and that is called sheet 1, so to access that you use
square brackets, and specify the name of the sheet,
that is sheet one, make sure to spell this with a capital
S. Because this is case sensitive, if you don't spell it properly
you're going to get an error, so this returns a sheet,
now in this sheet, we have various cells. So
next you need to learn how to access a particular cell, and that is very easy.
back to py charm, with this sheet object, you can use
square brackets and give the coordinate of a cell.
Coordinate is the combination of the column and the row.
For example, this cell it's coordinate is a1.
So back to pycharm, we can type a1, and this returns
our first cell. Also, there is another approach to getting
a cell, instead of using square brackets with a string, we can
use the cell method of the sheet object, so,
sheet.cell, you pass the row and the column, so row
and column 1 these return the exact same
cell. Now let's print the value of this cell, cell.value
and run our program so
the value is transaction id, beautiful,
so now we need to iterate over all these rows and for each row we need to get the value
in the third column. That is the price. We'll get that and then multiply
by 0.9. So first we need to know how many rows
we have in this spreadsheet. We can get that from the sheet object so sheet
has an attribute called mx_
row. Let's print this, so in this sheet,
we have 4 row, and you can verify that here. So we have
a total of 4 rows. So we need to add a for loop.
that would generate the numbers 1-4. So,
let's delete this print statement, nd add a for loop
for row in were going to use the range function unction to generate a range of numbers,
starting from 1, all the way to sheet
.max_grow. Plus 1. The reason we're
adding 1 to this, is because as I told you before this range function
will generate numbers, starting from this value all the way to this
value, but it will not include the second value. So currently
max row returns 4, if you use range of 1-4 this will generate
the numbers 1, 2, and 3, but not 4.
So to include 4, we need to add 1 to it. Let's go over here,
so we tied sheet.max underline row plus 1.
Now before going any further let's just print row and make
sure our program is working up to this point. So let's run
this, we get the numbers 1-4 beautiful.
So now we can easily get the cells in the third column. However
we don't really want this first cell, that's the heading.
so technically you want to ignore the first row. Back here, you want to change
our range function, and start from 2. Now,
we're going to use sheet.cell to get access to the cell
at this row. And the column should be 3.
We get a cell object, let's print it's value
and make sure you're on the right track, so run the program
these are the values we get. 5.95
6.95 and 7.95 these are the
values of the third column. Next we need to multiply each
value by 0.9 so instead of printing
cell.value we multiplied by 0.9 and this is
the corrected underline price,
so this is the mistake we're going to make with our program, now
we need to add a new cell to our worksheet, so we want to add all the corrected
prices, ia new column, it could also overwrite the values in this column,
but in this tutorial I'm going to show you how to add a new column.
So using the same method, now we need to get a reference to the cell, to the given
row, but in the fourth column. So, we call sheet
.cell, and pass row and four as the arguments.
Once again, this returns a cell object, let's store that in a
separate variable and call it
price_cell. So note that my variable names are
very descriptive. There is no guess work. You have corrected price which holds
actual value and we have corrected price, which is a cell
object in this spreadsheet. Next we have to set the value in this
cell. So we set corrected price cell.
value to this corrected price. With these few lines
we can easily update our spreadsheet, but first we need to save it. So,
after our for loop, we call workbook.
save. Now let's save this in a new file because we don't want to
accidentally overwrite the original file in case our program has a bug
so, I'm going to call that transactions 2.sms
ex. And finally let's run our program,
so, you can see that happened in a split of a second, now here we have a new file
tranactions 2. When we open this we get something like this.
So you can see we have this 4th column with the updated prices. Beautiful.
So half of the problem is solved, now we need to add a chart here.
To add a chart, we need to add a couple classes on the top, so,
after this import statement let's type out from
open py excel.chart, import, bar chart,
comma, reference.
So lets see what's going on here. In this package you have a module
chart, and from this module we're importing two classes, bar chart,
and reference. Again, look at the naming convention used
here. The first letter of e very word is capitalized. Also it's better
to add a line break after our import statements to make our
code cleaner. So, before we save our workbook, we need to
add achart to the current sheet. First we need to select a range
of values. For this exercise, I'm going to select the values in the fourth column/.
So all the values in rows 2-4 these are
the values I'm going to use in our chart. Now in this part 2 example it doesn't really
make sense to add a chart per transaction, but that doesn't really matter
we just want a bunch of numbers to create a chart, so after our
for loop, we're going to use the reference class to select a range of
values. Now the first argument in the constructor is the
sheet. So we pass our sheet here, then we add
4 keyword arguments, the first one is min_row, we set this to
2. The second one is max_row we set
this to the maximum row in this sheet. That is sheet,
.max_row, so we want to select the cells in row
2-4. kay? Now to make this code a little bit cleaner
I'm going to put this on a new line, so we
can see clearly, now this is going to select all the cells
in all the columns in these rows. That's not what we want.
we only want the values in the fourth column, so back here
we need to set a couple more key word arguments men_call
or column, we set that to for, and also
max underline call, we set that to 4 as well. So we are limiting the range
of cells we're selecting to the fourth column.
Now, we're creating an instance of the reference class, let's store the
result in a variable called values, so this values object
will have all these values in the fourth column, now we are ready to create
a chart, so we create an instance of the bar chart class
and store it in this object.
Next, we call chart.add_date and
pass our values. That is pretty straight forward finally we need to add this chart
to our sheet. So, we call sheet,
.add_chart and pass this chart object
We should also specify where we want to add this chart.
let's say we want to add it here, on row 2, after the fourth column.
So the coordinate of this cell is e2, and this is going to be,
the top left corner of our chart. So as the coordinate I'm going to
pass e2 that's all we had to do, done. Let's run our
program one more time, beautiful, let's open up the update
workbook. And here's the end result, so
right after the fourth column, we have this beautiful chart. Now we could take this to the next level,
we could add a legend here, we could change the color of these bars, we could even use a different
kind of chart, it doesn't have to be a bar chart. So to learn more about this we can
read the documentation for openpyxl. So
our program is complete, for our code is dirty, it's not clean, it's not
organized. We don't have any functions here. We have written all the code in app.py.
So let's goo ahead and organize this code like a professional software developer.
So, on line 4, we are loading our workbook
then we're getting a reference to the first sheet, but we don't really need these two lines here
this is purely for demonstration to show you how to access a cell. So,
let's delete these unnecessary lines, this is a very important practice
as you're coding always look at your code, always review it, see if you have some code that is
not used. Always delete those. Okay, next we are iterating over
all the rows, fixing the prices, and then
we select the values to add a chart, and finally we save the workbook.
Now, if you were going to use this to automate the process of updating
thousands of spreadsheets, this program wouldn't work, because it's only
relying on this file. So we want o reorganize this code, and
move it inside of a function. This function should take the name of a function
So let's define a function. Let's
call it process_workbook.
It gets a file name. Now, we move all the code inside
of this function, so let's select everything, and press
tab, beautiful, now back
to our function, instead of loading this transactions file we're going to load
this file name, that's better,
Also, now that our program is working properly, there is really no need to store the
result in a separate file. So here we can
simply overwrite the same file. So let's pass
file name, that is the end of our function, so,
now, we have this reusable function, we can simply reuse this
to process thousands of spreadsheets. Earlier in this python course you learned
how to find all the files in a directory, so we can get each file in a directory
and pass the name of the file to this function, this function will go
ahead and update this spreadsheet in just a second or less.
So, that was just one example of using python to automate
repetitive boring task that waste your time. But automation is not
just about processing excel spreadsheets, there are so many things we can automate.
Here's a question for you, what do you want to automate, how do you want to use python to make your
life easier? Use the comment box below and let me know. I love to
hear about your ideas. Next we're going to work on project which involves machine learning, which is a
subset of artificial intelligence. Are you excited?
Let's get started.
In this section, you're going to learn about machine learning, which is a subset of
AI or artificial intelligence. It's one of the trending topics in the world,
these days, and it's going to have a lot of applications in the future. Here's an example.
Imagine I ask you to write a program to scan an image, and
tell if it's a cat or a dog. If you want to build this program using
traditional programming techniques, your program is going to get overly complex
You will have to come up with lots of rules to come up with specific curves
edges and colors in an image to tell if it's a cat or a dog.
But if I give you a black and white photo, your rules may not work, they may break.
Then you would have to rewrite them. Or I may give you a picture of a cat or a dog from a different
angle that we did not predict before. So solving this problem
using traditional programming techniques is going to get overly complex or
sometimes impossible. Now to make the matter worse. What if I ask you to extend
this program such that it supports 3 kinds of animals.
Cats, dogs, and horses, once again you will have to rewrite
all those rules. That's not going to work. So machine learning is a technique
to solve these kinds of problems, and this is how it works. We build
a model or an engine and give it lots and lots of data.
For example, we give it thousands or tens of thousands of pictures of
cats and dogs. Our model will then find and learn patterns and the input
data, so we can give it a new picture of a cat that we haven't seen before.
And ask it, is it a cat or a dog or a horse
and it will tell us with a certain level of accuracy, the more input data we give it, the more accurate
our model is going to be. So that was a very basic example,
but machine learning has other applications in self driving cars,
robotics, language processing, vision processing,
forecasting things like stock market trends and the weather, games and so on.
So that's the basic idea about machine learning. Next we'll look at machine
learning in action.
A machine learning project involves
a number of steps, the first step is to import our data which
often comes in the form of a csv file. You might have a database with lots of data,
we can simply export that data and store it in a csv file for the
purpose of our machine learning project. So we import our data, next,
we need to clean it. And this involves tasks such as duplicated data.
If you have duplicates in the data, we don't want to feed this to the model, because
otherwise our model will learn bad patterns in our data and will produce the wrong result,
so we should make sure that our input data is in a good, and clean shape.
If there is data that is irrelevant we should remove them, if there are duplicates
or incomplete we can remove or modify them, if our data is
text based, like the name of countries, or genres of music,
or cats and dogs, we need to convert them to numerical values.
So this step really depends on the kinds of data we're working with, every project
is different. Now that we have a clean data set, we need to split it
into two segments. One for training our model, and the other for
testing it, to make sure our model produces the right result.
For example, if you have 1,000 pictures of cats and dogs, we can reserve
80% for training, and another 20% for testing.
The next step is to create a model, and this involves selecting
an algorithm to analyze the data. There are so many machine learning algorithms
out there, such as decision trees, neural networks and so on.
Each algorithm have pros and cons in terms of accuracy and performance
so the algorithm you use, depends on the kind of problem
you're trying to solve and your input data. Now the good news isnthat we don't have to
explicitly program an algorithm, there are libraries out there that provide these
algorithms, one of the most popular ones, which we are going to look at
in this tutorial, is side kick learn. So we build a model using an algorithm ,
next we need to train our model. So we feed it our training data.
Our model will then look for the patterns in the data, so enxt
we can ask it to make predictions. Back to our examples of cats and dogs,
we can ask our model is this a cat or is this a dog and our model
will make a prediction, now the prediction is not always accurate
in fact when you start out, it's very likely your predictions are inaccurate.
So we need to envalue the predictions and measure their accuracy.
Then we need to get back to our model and either select a different algorithm
that is going to produce a more accurate result for the kind of problem
we're trying to solve. Or fine tune the parameters of our model.
So each algorithm has parameters that we can modify to optimize the
accuracy. So these are the high level steps that you follow in a machine learning
project. Next we'll look at the libraries and tools for machine learning.
In this lecture we're going too look at the popular python library
that we use in machine learning projects. The first one is numpy which
provides a multidimensional array. A very, very, popular library.
The seconnd one is pandas, which is a data analysis library that
provides a concept called data frame. Data frame is a two dimensional
data structure similar to an excel spreadsheet. So we have rows and columns
we can select columns in a row or a column or a range of rows and
columns, again, very very popular in machine learning
and data science projects. The third library is mad plot lib which
is a two dimensional plotting library for creating graphs on plots.
The next library is sidekick learn, which is one of the most popular machine learning
libraries that provides all these common algorithms like decision trees,
neural networks and so on. Now, when working with machine learning
projects, we use an environment called jupiter for writing our code, technically we can still
use vs code or any other code editor, but these editors
are not ideal for machine learning projects, because we need to frequently
inspect the data, and that is really hard in environments like vs code and
terminal. If you're working with a table of 10 or 20 columns
visualizing this data in a terminal window is really, really difficult and messy, so thats why we use jupiter.
So that's why we use jupiter, it makes it really easy to inspect our data.
Now to install jupiter, we are going to use platform called anaconda.
So, head over to Anaconda.com/download.
On this page you can download Anaconda distribution for your operating system,
so, we have distributions for Windows Mac and
Linux. So let's go ahead and install
Anaconda for python 3.7. Download,
Alright, so
here's Anaconda, download it on my machine, let's double click this.
Alright, first it's going to run a program to determine if the software can be installed.
So, let's continue and once again continue,
pretty easy, continue one more time,
I agree with the license agreement, we can use the default
you ca use the default installation location so don't worry about that, just click install,
give it a few second, now the beautiful thing about Anaconda is it will install
jupiter, as well as all those data popular science libraries
like numpy, Pandas and so on. So we don't have to manually install this
using pip. Alright now as part of
the next step Anaconda is suggesting to install Microsoft vs code. We
already have this on our machine so we don't have to install it we can go with continue
and close the installation, now finally we can move the
this to trash because we don't need this installer in the future.
Alright, now open upa terminal window and type
jupiter, with a y, space, notebook.
This will start the notebook server on your machine. So enter
there you go. This will start the notebook server
on your machine, we can see these default messages here, don't worry about them, now
it automatically opens a browser window, pointing to local host
port 888. This is what we call
jupiter dashboard. On this dashboard we have a few tabs, the first tab
is the files tab, and by default, this points to your home directory.
So every user on your machine has a home directory, this its my home directory
on Mac, you can see here we have a desktop folder as well as documents,
downloads and so on. On your machine you're going to see different folders, so somewhere
so somewhere on your machine you need to create a jupiter notebook. I'm going to go to desktop
here's my desktop I don't have anything here, and then
click new, I want to create a notebook for python
3. In this notebook we can write python code, and execute it line by line.
We can easily visualize our data as you can see over the next few videos. So,
let's go ahead with this,
alright, here's our first notebook, you can see by default it's called
untitled, let's change that to Hello World so
this is going to be the hello world of our machine learning project. Let's
rename this now if you look at your desktop you can see this file
hello world.ipynb. This is a jupiter
notebook. It's kind of similar to our py files where we write our
python code, but it includes additional data that jupiter uses to execute our
code. So back to our notebook, let's
do a print hello world.
And then, click this run button here
and here's the result printed in jupiter, so we don't have to
navigate back and forth between the terminal window we can see all the result
right here. Next I'm going to show you how to load a data set from a
csv file in jupiter.
Alright, in this lecture we're going to download a data set from a very popular website called
caggle.com. Caggle is basically a place to do data science projects.
So the first thing you need to do is to create an account, you can sign up with Facebook,
Google, or using a custom email and password, once you sign up then come back
here, on caggle.com, Here one the search bar
search for video game sales.
This is the name of a very popular data set that we're going to use in this lecture. So,
here in this list you can see the first item with this kind of reddish
icon, so, let's go with that, as you can see this data
set includes the sales data for more then 16,000 videos
games. On this page you can see the description of various
columns in this data set, we have rank, name, platform,
year, and so on, so here's our data source, it's a csv file
called vg sales.csv, as you can see there are over 16,000
rows, and 11 columns in this data set.
Right below that you can see the first few records of this data set.
So, here's our first record, the ranking for this game is 1, it's the wi sport
game for wii as the platform and it was released in the year 2006,
now, what I want you to do is go ahead and
download the data set, and as I told you before you need to sign in
before you can download this. So this will give you a zip file as you can see here,
here's our csv file, now I want you to
put this right next to your jupiter notebook, on my machine that is on my desktop
so I'm going to drag and drop this onto the desktop folder.
Now, if you look at the desktop you can see here's my
jupiter, hello world notebook, and right next to that we have
vgsales.csv. With that, we go back
to our jupiter notebook, let's remove the first line and instead
import pandas
as pd. With his we're importing pandas module
and renaming it to pd, so we don't have to type pandas. several times in
this code. Now let's type pd.
read_csv. And pass the
name of our csv file. That is vgsales.
csv. Now because this csv file, is in the current folder right next to our jupiter notebook,
we can easily load it, otherwise we have to supply the full path
to this file. So, this returns a
data frame object which is like an excel spreadsheet. Let me show you.
So we store it here, and then we can
simply type df to inspect it. So one more time let's run this program
here's our data frame with these rows and these columns so we have
frank name platform and so on. Now this data frame object
has lots of attributes and methods that we're not going to cover in this tutorial,
that's really beyond the scope of what we're going to do, so I'm going to leave it up to you to
read pandas documentation or follow other tutorials to find out about pandas data frames.
But in this lecture, I'm going to show you some of the most useful methods and attributes.
The first one is shape, so shape
let's run this one more time, so here's the shape of this data set, we have over
16,000 records and 11 columns.
Technically this is a 2 dimensional array of 16,000
and 11, okay? Now, we can see here we have another
segment for writing code. SO we don't have to write all the code in the first segment
so here in the second segment we can call one of the methods of the dataframe,
that is df.describe.
Now when we run this program, we can see the
output for each segment right next to it. So here's our first
segment, here we have these three lines, and this is the output of
the last line. Below that we have our second segment, here we're calling
the describe method, and right below that we have the output of
this segment So this is the beauty of jupiter, you can easily visualize
our datsa, doing this with vscode in windows is really tedious and
clunky. So what is the describe method returning? Basically it's
returning some basic information about each column in this data set, So,
as you saw earlier we have columns like rank, year and so
on. These are the columns with numerical values. Now for each column we have
the count which is the number of records in that column, you can se
our rank column has 16,5
-98 records whereas the year column has 16,3-
-27 records.. So this shows that some of our records don't
have the value for the year column. We have null values.
So in a real data science or machine learning project we'll have to use some
techniques to clean up our data set. One option is to remove the records
that don't have a value for the year column. Or we can assign them a default value.
That really depends on the project. Now another attribute for each column
is mean so this is the average of all the values, now
in the case of the rank column, this rank doesn't really matter, but look at the year.
So the average year year for all these video games in our dataset is
2006. And this might be important in the problem we're trying to solve.
We also have standard deviation, which is a
measure to quanitfy the amount of variation in our set of values, below that we have
min, as an example the minimum value for the year column
is 1980. So quite often when we work with a new data set,
we call the describe method to get some basic statistics about
our data. Let me show you another useful attribute.
So, in the next segment, let's type df.values.
Let's run this, as you can see this returns
a two dimensional array, this square bracket indicates the outer array
and a second one represents an inner array.
So the first element inn our outer array, is an
array itself, these are the values in this array, which basically
represent the first row in our data set. So the video game we ranking
1, which is called wii sports. So this was a basic
overview of pandas data frames, in the next lecture I'm going to show you
some of the useful shortcuts of jupiter.
In this lecture I'm going to show to you some of the most useful shortcuts in Jupiter,
Now the first thing I want you to pay attention to is this green bar on the left.
This indicates that this cell is currently in the edit mode, so we can
write code here. Now, if we press the
escape key, green turns to blue, and that means this cell is
currently in the command mode. So basically the activated cell can either
be in the edit mode or command mode. Depending
on the mode, we have different shortcuts, so here we're in the command mode.
If we press h, we can see the list of all the
keybord shortcuts, right above this list we can
see, Mac OS modifier keys, these are the
extra keys on a Mac keyboard. If you're a Windows
user you're not gong to see these. So as an example, here is the shape of the
command key, this is control, this is option,
and so on. With this guideline you can easily understand the shortcut associated with
each command. Let me show you. So here we have all
the commmands when a cell is in the command mode. For example, we have
this command, open the command palette. This is exactly like the
command palette that we have in vs code. Here is a short cut
to execute this command. That is command shift and F.
Okay, so here we have lots of shortcuts,
of course you're not going to use all of them all the time, but it's good to have a quick look here to see
what is available for you. Tis these shortcuts you can write code much faster.
So let me show you somme of the most useful ones. I'm going to close this,
now with our first cell in the command mode
I'm going to press b, and this inserts, a new
cell below this cell. We can also go
back to our first cell, press escape, now the cell is in the command
mode. We can insert an empty cell above this cell by pressing a.
So either a or b. A for above or
b for below. Now if you don't want this cell, you can press d
twice to delete it. Like this.
Now in the cell I'm going to print a hello world message. So print
hello world. Now, to
run the code in this cell, we can click on the run button here,
so, here's our print function, and
right below that you can see the output of this function. But note that when you run
a cell, this will only execute the code in that cell.
In other words, the code in other cells will not be executed.
Let me show you want I mean, so in the cell below the cell, I'm going to delete the call
to a describe method. Instead I'm going to print
ocean. Now, I'm going
to put the cursor back in this cell where we print this hello world message
and run this cell. So we can see hello world
is displayed here, but the cell below is still displaying
the describe table, so we don't see the changes here. Now,
to solve this problem, we can go to the cell menu on the top,
and run all cells together. This can work for a
small project, but sometimes you're working with a large data
set, so if you want to run all these cells together it's going to take a lot of time. That is
the reason jupiter saves the output of each cell, so we don't have to rerun that
code if it hasn't changed. So this notebook file that we have here,
includes our source code organized in cells as
well as the output for each cell. That is why it's different
from a regular py file where we only have the source code.
Here we also have autocompletion and intellisence, so in this cell,
let's call df data frame
. now if you press tab you can see all the attributes
and methods in this object. So let's call
describe, now with the cursor on the name of the method we can
press shift and tab, to see this tool tip that describes
what this method does and what parameter it takes. So here in front of
so here in front of signature you can see the describe method, these are the paramter
and their default value, and right below that you can see
the description of what that method does. In this case, it describes
generates descriptive statistics, that summarize the central tendency and so on.
Similar to vs code, we can also convert a line to comment
by pressing command and slash on mac, or
control slash on windows. Like this. Now that line is a comment, we can
press the same shortcut one more time to remove the comment,
so these are some of the most useful shortcuts in jupiter.
Now over the next few lectures we're going to work on a real machine learning project, but before we get there,
let's delete all the cells here, so we start with only a single
empty cell, so here, in this cell, first I'm going to press the
escape button, now the cell is blue, so we're in the command mode, and
we can delete the cell by pressing d twice. There you go.
Now, the next cell is activated and is in the command mode.
So, let's delete this as well, so we have two more cells to delete
there you go, and the last one, like this,
so now we have an empty notebook with a single cell.
Over the next few lectures, we're going to work on a real machine learning project,
imagine we have an online music store, when our users sign up,
we asked our age and gender, and based on their profile,
you recommend various music albums their likely to buy. So in this project,
you want to use machine learning to increase sales.
So, we want to build a model, we feed this model with some sample data,
based on the existing users. Our model will learn the patterns in our data,
so we can ask it to make predictions. When a new user signs up,
we tell our model, hey, we have a new user with this profile, what
is the kind of music, that this user is interested in, our model will say jazz, or hip hop,
or whatever, and baed on that we can make suggestions to the user
so, this is the problem we're going to solve, now back to the list of steps in the machine
learning projects, first we need to import our data, then, we should
prepare or clean it, next we select a machine learning algorithm
to build a model, we treat our model and ask it to make predictions.
And finally, we evaluate our algorithm to see it's
accuracy. if it's not accurate we either fine tune our model or
select a different algorithm. So let's focus on the first step.
Head over to bit.ly/music.csv
this is a very basic csv that I've created for this project, it's just some random
made up data it's not real. So we have a table with 3
columns, age, gender, and genre. Gender
can either be one which represents a male,
or a 0, which represents a female, here I'm making a few assumptions.
I'm assuming that men between 20 and 25 like hip hop men between
26 and 30 like jazz, and after the age of 30,
they like classical music. For women I'm assuming
that if they are between 20 and 25 they like dance music, if
they are between 26 and 30 they like acoustic music, and just like
men, after the age of 30 they like classical music. Once again this is
a made up pattern, it's not the representation of the reality, so,
let's go ahead and download this csv. Click on this ... icon here
and download this file.
In my downloads folder, here we have this music.csv.
I'm going to drag and drop this onto the desktop because that's where I've
stored this hello world notebook. So I want you to put this csv file
right next to your jupiter notebook.
Now, back to our notebook, you need to read the csv file, so just like before
first we need to import the pandas module, so import panda
as pd. And then we'll call pd,
.read_csv and
the name of our file is music.csv. As you saw earlier this
returns a data frame which is a two dimensional array similar to an xl spreadsheet,
so let's call that music_
data. Now let's inspect
this music_data to make sure we loaded everything properly so
run, so here's our data frame, beautiful, next we need
to prepare or clean the data. And that's the topic for the next lecture.
next lecture.
The second step in a machine learning project, is cleaning, or
preparing the data, and that involves tasks such as removing duplicate
null values and so on. Now on this particular data set we don't have to do anything
kind of cleaning, because we don't have any duplicates, and as you can see
As you can see, all rows have values for all columns, so we don't have null values.
But there is one thing we need to do,
we should split this data set into two separate data sets, one into the first
two columns, which we refer to as the input set, and the other
with the last column which we refer to as the output set. So when we train a model,
so when we train a model we give it two separate data sets. The input set and the output set.
The output set which is in this case
the genre column contains the predictions so we're telling our model that
if we have a user who's 20 years old and a male they like
hip hop. Once we train our model then we give it a new
input set. For example, we have a new user who is
21 years old and is a male, what is the genre of the music that this
user probably likes. As you can see in our input set, we don't have
a sample for a 21 year old male, so we're going to ask
our model to predict that. That is the reason we need to split this data
set into two separate sets. Input and output
So back to our code, this data frame object has a
method called drop. Now
if you put the cursor on the method name and press shift
and tab, you can see this tool tip, so this is the signature of
this drop method, these are the parameters you can pass here.
the parameter we're going to use in this lecture is set to none by default.
Witht his parter we can specify the columns we want to drop, so
in this case we set columns
to an array with one string, genre
now this method doesn't actually modify the original data set.
In fact it will create a new data set but without thisq
call. So by convention we use a capital X to
represent that data set, so capital x equals this
expression. Now, let's inspect x,
so as you can see our input set or x
includes these two columns, age and gender, it doesn't have the
output or predictions. Next we need to create our output set so,
once again we start with our data frame
using data, using square brackets we can get all the
values in a given column. In this case, genre. Once again this returns
a new data set. By convention we use a lower case y
to represent that. So that is our output
data. Let's inspect that as well. So,
in this data set we only have the predictions or the answers.
So we have prepared our data, next we want to create a model using an
algorithm.
The next step is to build a
model using a machine learning algorithm. There are so many algorithms out there, each algorithm
has its pros and cons, in terms of the performance and accuracy.
In this lecture we're going to use a very simple algorithm called decision tree.
Now the good news is we don't have to explicitly
program these algorithms, they're already implemented in a library called side kick
learn. So, here on the top,
from sklearn.tree
let's import the decision tree
classifier. So sklearn is the package
that comes with sidekick learn library, this is the most popular machine learning library
in python. In this package, we have a module called tree.
And in this module we have a class called decision tree classifier.
This class implements the decision tree operator, okay?
So, now we need to create a new instance of this class.
So, at the end, let's create
an object called models nd set it to anew instance of decision,
tree classifier. Like this.
So now we have a model, next we need to train it so it learns
patterns in the data, and that is pretty easy. You call model,
.fit this method takes
2 data set. The input set and the output set.
So they are capital x, y.
Now finally, we need to ask our model to make a prediction, so we can
ask it, what is the kind of music a 24 year old male likes? Now before
we do that, let's temporarily inspect our initial data set. That is
music data. So, look what
we got here. As I told you earlier, I've assumed
that men between 20 and 25 like hip hop music but
here we only have 3 samples for men age
20, 23,and 25. We don't have a sample for
a 21 year old male. So if you ask our model to predict the kind of music
that a 21 year old male likes, we expect it to say hip hop. Similarly,
I've assumed that women between 20 and 25 like dance music,
but we don' have a sample for a 22 year old female. So once again if
you ask our model to predict the kind of music that a 22 year old woman
likes, we expect it to say dance.
So, with these assumptions let's go ahead and ask our model
to make predictions. So let's remove
the last line, and instead we're going to call model
.predict. This method takes a
2 dimensional array. So here's the outer array. In this array, each element
is an array. So I'm going to pass
another array here, and in this array I'm going to pass a new input set.
a 21 year old male. So 21, 1
that is like a new record in this table. Okay? So,
this is one input set, let's pass another input for a 22 year old
female. So here's another array, here,
we add 22 comma 0, so we're asking our model to make 2 predictions
at the same time. We get the result and store it
in a variable called predictions, and finally
let's inspect that in our notebook.
Run, look what we got, our
model is saying that a 21 year old male likes hip hop, and a 22 year
old female likes dance music. So our model successfully
will make predictions here. But wait a minute, building a model that makes
predictions accurately is not always that easy.
After we build a model we need to measure it's accuracy.
And if it's not accurate enough, we should either fine tune it or build a model using a different
algorithm. So next lecture I'm going to show you how to measure the accuracy of
a model.
In this lecture I'm going to show you
how to measure the accuracy of your models. Now in order to do so,
first we need to split our data set into two sets. One for training and the other
for testing, because right now, we are passing the entire data set,
for training the model and we're using 2 samples for
making predictions. That is not enough to calculate the
accuracy of a model. A general rule of thumb is to annotate
70-80% of our data to training, and another20-30%
for testing, then instead of passing only two samples for
making predictions, we can pass the data set for testing
we'll get the predictions and then compare the predictions with the actual values.
In the test set. Based on that, we can calculate the
accuracy. That's really easy, all we have to do is import a couple functions and
call them in this code. Let me show you. So first on this top
from sklearn.model
underline selection module we import a function called
train test split. With this function we can easily split our
data set into two sets. So training and testing,
now, right here, after we define x and y,
sets, we call this funciton, so train
test split. We give it 3
arguments, x, y, ad a keyword argument that specifies
the size of our test dataset. So test
_size we set it to 0.2 So we're allocating 20%
of our data for testing. Now this functions returns a
tuple, so we can unpack it into 4 variables
right here. x_train
x_test y_train and y
_test. so the first two variables
are the input sets for training and testing.
And the other are the output sets for training and testing,
now, when training our model,
instead of passing the entire data set we want to pass only the training data set.
So, x_train,
and y_train. Also, when making predictions
instead of passing these two samples, we pass
x_test. So thats the datas set.
That contains input values for testing. Now we get
the predictions. To calculate the accuracy we simply have to compare these predictions
with the actual values we have in the output set
for testing. That is very easy. First on the top,
we need to import a funciton, so, from sklearn.metric
.metrics import accuracy
_score. Now at the end.
We call this function, so accuracy score and
give it two arguments y_test.
Which contains the expected values and
predictions which contains the actual value.
Now this functions returns an accuracy score between 0
to 1. So we can store it here,
and simply display it on the console. So let's go ahead
and run this program. So, the accuracy score
is 1 or a 100% but if we run this one more time, we're going to see a different result
because every time we split our data set into
training a test sets. We'll have different data sets, because this function
randomly picks data for training and testing. Let me show you, so put the cursor
in the cell, now we can see this is activated
note that if you click this button here, it will run the cell and also insert a new
cell below this cell. Let me show you. So if I go to this second cell
press the skip button, now we are in the command mode,
press d twice, okay now it's deleted, if we
click the run button, we can see, this code was
executed, and now we have a new cell, so if you want to run our cell multiple times
every time you have to click this and then run
it, and then click again, and run it, it's a little bit tedious. So I'll show you a shortcut.
Activate the first cell, and press control and enter
this runs the current cell without
adding a new cell below it. So, back here, lets run it multiple times
okay, now look the accuracy dropped to 0.75, it's
still good, so the cuuracey scored here, is somewhere
between 75% to a hundred %. But let me show you something, if I
change the test size, from 0.2 to 0.
8, so essentially we're using only 20 percent of our data,
for training this model. And you're using the other 80%
for testing. Now let's see what happens when we run this cell multiple
times. SO, control and enter, look, the accuracy immediately
dropped to 0.4 One more time, now 46%
40%, 26%
it's really, really bad. The reason this is happening is because
you are using very little data for training this model. This is one of
the key concepts in machine learning, the more data we give to our model and the cleaner
the data is, we get the better result, so if you have duplicates,
irrelevant data, or incomplete values, our
model will learn back patterns in our data. That's why it's really important to clean
before training our model. Now let's change this back to 0.
2, run this one more time, okay, now
the accuracy is 1, 75%, now we drop to 50%
again, the reason this is happening, is because we don't have enough data.
Some machine learning problems, require, thousands or even millions
of samples, to train model, the more complex a problem is,
the more data we need. For example, here we're only dealing with a table of three
columns, but if you want to build a model to tell if a picture of a cat or a dog or a horse,
or a lion, we will need millions of pictures, the more animal
it will support the more pictures we need. In the next lecture, we're going to talk about
model persistence.
So this is a
very basic implementation of building a training a model to make a prediction.
Now to simplify things I have removed all the code that you wrote in the last lecture for
calculating the accuracy, because in this lecture, you're going to
focus on a different topic, So basically we import our data set.
Create a model, train it, and then
ask it to make predictions, now this piece of code that you see here, is not what we
want to run everytime we have a new user or
every time we want to make recommendations to an existing user
sometimes it's really time consuming. In this example, we're dealing with a
very small data set that only has 20 records. But in a real application,
you might have a data set with thousands or trillions of examples, training for that
might take seconds or minutes or even hours.
And that is wy model persistence is important, once in a while,
you build and train our model and then we save it to a file.
Now, next time we want to make predictions, we simply load the model from the file and
ask it to make predictions. That model is already trained
you don't need to retrain it, it's like an intelligent person. So let me show you
how to do this. it's very very easy. On the top,
from sklearn.externals module
we import joblib. This
job lib object has methods for saving and loading modules. So,
after we train our model we'll simply call
job lib .dump and give it
two arguments. Our model and the name of the file
in which we want to store this model. Let's call this music
-recommender.job lib
That's all we have to do. Now temporarily I'm going to comment
out this line, we don't want to make any predictions, we just want to store
train model in a file. So let's run this cell with control,
and slash, okay, look, in the output
we have an array that contains the name of our model file.
So this is the return value of the dump method. Now back to our
desktop, right next to my notebook we can see our job lib file, this is where our model is stored.
It's simply a binary file. Now back to our
jupiter notebook. As I told you before in a real application we don't want to
train model every time. So let's comment out
these few lines, on Mac, we can press
command and slash and on windows control slash.
Okay, these lines are commented out, now this time, instead of dumping
our model, we're going to load it, so we call the load method, we don't have the model, we simply
pass the name of our model file. This
returns our trained model. Now with this
two lines we can simply make predictions, so, earlier,
we assumed that men between 20-25 like hip hop music.
let's print predictions and see if our model is behaving
so control
so this is how we persist and load models.
Earlier in this section, I told you that decision trees are the easiest
to understand. And that's why we started machine learning with decision trees. In this lecture, we're going to
export our model in visual format, so you will see
how this model makes predictions, that is really, really cool.
Let me show you. So once again I've simplified this code
so we simply import our data set, create
input and output sets, create a model, and
train it, that's all we are doing, now I want you to
follow along with me, type everything exactly as I show you in this lecture. Don't
worry about what everything means we'll come back to it shortly. So on the top,
from sklearnimport
tree, this object has a method for exporting
our decision tree in a graphical format. So after we
train our model, let's call tree
_graph vis. Now here are a few arguments we need
to pass. The first argument is our model,
the second is the name oft he output file. So here we're going to use keyword
arguments, because this method takes so many parameters, and we want to selectively pass
keyword arguments without worrying about their order. So,
the parameter we're going to set it out_file
let's set this to music-recommend
.dot. This is the dot format, which is the
graph format, which is a graph description language, you will see that shortly.
Now the other parameter you want to set is feature
_names. We set this to an array of two strings,
age and gender. These are the features
or the columns of our data set. So they are properties or features of
our data. Okay? The other parameter
is class names. So class_names
we should set this to the list of classes or labels we have
in our output data set, like hip hop, jazz, classical and so on.
So, this y data set includes all the genre
or all the classes of our data, but they are repeated a few times in this data set.
So, here we call y.unit this returns
the unique list of classes, now we should sort this alphabetically.
So, we call the sorted function, and pass the
result a y.unique.
The next parameter is labeled, we set
this to a string, all, once again don't worry,
about the details of these parameters, we're going to come back to these shortly. So,
set label to all, then round it,
to true, and finally field to true. So,
so this is the end result, now let's run this sound
using control and enter, okay,
here we have a nw file music recommender .. that's a little
bit funny. So we want to open this file with vs code.
So drag and drop this into a vs code window.
Okay, here's a dot format, it's
a textural language for describing graphs
Now to visualize this graph we need to install an extension in vs code.
So on the left side, click extensions panel and search
for dot, dot. Look at this second extension here.
graphvis or .language
by stephon vs. Go ahead and install this extension
and then reload vs code. Once you do that, you can visualize
this dot file. So let me close this tab.
Alright, look at this ... on the right side. Click this,
you should have a new menu, open preview to the side. So like that
alright, here's the visualization of our decision tree,
let's close the dot file, there you go. This is exactly
how our model makes predictions. So we have this
binary tree, which means every node can have a maximum of two children.
On top of each note we have a condition
if this condition is true we go to the child node on the left side. Otherwise we
go to the child node on the right side. So let's see what's happening here, the first condition
is age less then or equal to 30
.5. If this condition is false, that means that user is 30 years
or older, so the genre of the music that their interested in is classical.
So here we're classifying people based
on their profile. That is the reason we have the word class here,
so a user who is 30 years or older, belongs to the class of
classical. Or people who like classical music. Now what if this condition
is true. That means that user is younger then
30, so, now we check the gender, if it's less then 0.5,
which basically means it equals to 0, then
we're dealing with a female. So we go to the child node here,
now once again we have another condition, so we are dealing with a female
who is younger than 30. Once again we ned to check their age so
is the age less then 25.5? If that's the case
then that user likes dance music, otherwise they like acoustic music.
So this is a decision tree that our model uses to make predictions
Now if you're wondering why we have these floating point numbers
like 25.5 These are basically the rules
that our model generates, based on the patterns in our dataset.
As we give our model more data, these rules will change so they are not always the same.
So they are not always the same, also the more columns or the more features
we have, our decision tree is going to get more complex.
We only have two features, age, and gender. Now back to our code
let me quickly explain the meaning of all these parameters, we set field to true
so each box or each node is filled with a color. We set
rounded to true, so they have rounded corners. We set label to all
so every node has labels that we can read.
We set class names to the unique list of genres
and that's for displaying the class for each note, right here, and we set
feature names to age and gender, sow e can see the rules
in our notes. So that was a short and
sweet introduction to machien learning. Now you can use the materials that you learn in this section
and apply them to solve a different set of problems. Now here's a question for you:
What ideas do you have for machine learning? What kind of problems do you want to solve
with machine learning? Use the comments box below and let me know. I love to
hear about your ideas! Next we're going to use python and a popular framework called
django. To build a web application. Are you ready, let's get started
In this turorial, I'm going to show you how to create your first website with python, and A
and a very popular framework called django. So it's spelled with a silent D,
and is pronounced django. it's a web framework for
perfectionists with deadlines. So if you're a perfectionist and you want to quickly put together
a website that is fast, scaleable and secure,
django is your best friend. And here are the popular websites
built with Django. Like Instagram, Spotify
YouTube, Washington Post, and so on. Now you might say
what is a framework, and why do we need a framework to build a web application or a web site?
Well, the framework is essentially a library of reusable modules
these modules provide functionality for common tasks
for example, in the case of a web framework like django we have modules to work with http requests
url's, sessions, cookies and so on.
These are the concerns of pretty much every website or
application out there. So all this functionality is baked into django, we don't have to
code it from scratch, that is why we use a framework like django. Now,
django. Now technically a framework is more then a library,
apart from providing these modules it also provides a structure for each application
It tells us what folders or files we should have in our project. So this
provides a consistency among various django projects. So as you
move from one company to another and work on different projects, you can easily transition from one
project to another, because all these applications follow the same structure
now, with that interaction, let's create our first
django project. So back to pycharm, close the hello world
project, and create a new project, create a new project,
let's call this new project pyshop
go ahead, alright, now down at the bottom let's
open up a terminal window, in this window we're going to
install django. So we use pip to install
django. But be sure to add two equal signs here followed by
2.1 With this we are telling pip that we want to install django version
2.1. The reason I'm doing this, is because in the future when you're watching this video,
chances are there is a newer version django out there. I
want to make sure that you can easily follow these tutorials, even though what I'm going to show you
in these tutorials will most likely work with the latest version of django. I just want to
be on the safe side. So let's go ahead
alright, django is installed,
next we need to create a django project, so here press control and L
this cleans up our terminal window, you don't have to do it, but it's just
easier to see. To create a django project, we need to execute this command, django,
-admin space
start project space, you're going to call this
project pyshop space period.
So when we install django, django brings a
command line utility called django admin so this is a utility or program
that we can execute form the command line or terminal, right here.
Now, this program takes various arguments, in this case
we want to use this argument start project, with this we're going to create
a project called pushup in the current folder.
So this period is imported here, that means the current folder, if
you don't add this period, this utility is going to create an extra folder and that
looks a little bit repetitive, so let's go ahead with this,
alright, now, back to the project panel, if you expand py
shop we can see that this is our project that we created in pycharm
and in this folder we have these files.
So, init.py, you have seen this before, that means
this folder is package, so we can import various modules,
of this package into other modules, and in this module,
we define various settings for our application, you're going to see this later in
this course. You also have this url's module, and with this module
we define what should the user see when they see slash
about/contact/products/shopping cart
again, we're going to work with this only. And finally we have this module,
that wsgi, that is short for web server gateway
interface. The purpose of this module is to provide a standard interface
between applications built with django and web servers. This is
an advanced topic, so for now, don't worry about it. Now, outside of this folder,
of this folder you also have this new folder in our project
manage.py. As the name implies, we use this to manage
this django project. With this we can start our web server,
we can work with our data base, again, we're going to work with this soon,
let's open up the terminal window one more time, now,
type out this command, python if you're on windows or python
3 if you're on Mac, because as I told you at the beginning of the course, Mac by
default comes with an installation of python, that is python 2. But that is
this course is python 3. So python 3 space manage
.py space run
server. What is going on here? So with python interpreter
we are running this program manage.py and passing run server
as an argument. This manage.py is essentially the same program
that we worked with here, django admin.
But we use django admin before creating a django project, now we have a django project, so now
in this project we work with manage.py this
is a module that contains some python code, so we use this module to manage
our django project. So let's go ahead and