that all humans will be intimate with death

我覺得這樣說

at least once in their lives.

並不為過。

But what if that intimacy began

但若天命未到，

long before you faced your own transition

死亡威脅提前到來，

from life into death?

又會怎樣？

What would life be like

實際舆死亡相伴的生活

if the dead literally lived alongside you?

又是怎樣的？

In my husband's homeland

在印尼東部蘇拉威西(Sulawesi)島一帶的高地，

in the highlands of Sulawesi island

也就是外子的故鄉那兒，

in eastern Indonesia,

有一民族

there is a community of people that experience death

是在漸進的社會經驗中

not as a singular event

體驗死亡，

but as a gradual social process.

而非一生一次的大事。

In Tana Toraja,

在當地的塔納托拉雅（Tana Toraja），

the most important social moments in people's lives,

葬禮是生活中最重要的社交場合

the focal points of social and cultural interaction

和社會文化交流，

are not weddings or births or even family dinners,

更甚婚禮、新生兒誕生，

but funerals.

重要性甚至超越家庭晚餐。

So these funerals are characterized

繁複的儀式

by elaborate rituals

是這些葬禮的特徵，

that tie people in a system of reciprocal debt

這些儀式以禮尚往來的互惠系統

based on the amount of animals --

將人緊密融入，

pigs, chickens and, most importantly, water buffalo --

牲口數量就是這系統的基礎，

that are sacrificed and distributed

如豬 、雞 與最重要的水牛，

in the name of the deceased.

這些獻祭會以死者名義分給眾人。

So this cultural complex surrounding death,

因此這個瑩繞著死亡的文化情節，

the ritual enactment of the end of life,

以儀式演繹生命的終點，

has made death the most visible

並成為托拉雅當地

and remarkable aspect of Toraja's landscape.

最顯著特殊的在地景觀。

Lasting anywhere from a few days

為期數天

to a few weeks,

到數週不等的葬禮

funeral ceremonies are a raucous affair,

是一場喧鬧的盛事；

where commemorating someone who's died

在這場合中，紀念死者不僅是

is not so much a private sadness

個人哀傷的情緒，

but more of a publicly shared transition.

更是眾人共同的過渡時期。

And it's a transition that's just as much

這段時間

about the identity of the living

對生者的認同

as it is about remembrance of the dead.

和對死者的悼念是一樣的。

So every year, thousands of visitors

每年都有數以千計的訪客

come to Tana Toraja to see, as it were,

一如往昔地來到塔納托拉雅，

this culture of death,

見識死亡文化。

and for many people these grandiose ceremonies

對許多人而言，

and the length of the ceremonies

這些鋪張冗長的典禮

are somehow incommensurable

與西方對後事的態度

with the way that we face our own mortality in the West.

程度上似乎有點相近。

So even as we share death as a universal experience,

所以，死亡雖是我們共同的經驗，

it's not experienced the same way the world over.

但經歷因地而異。

And as an anthropologist,

我是人類學家，

I see these differences in experience

我認為文化和社會結構

being rooted in the cultural and social world

產生這些風俗差異，

through which we define the phenomena around us.

讓我們據以解釋週遭的環境。

So where we see an unquestionable reality,

在我們眼中毋庸置疑的事實，

death as an irrefutable biological condition,

也就是死亡為不可避免的生理狀態；

Torajans see the expired corporeal form

托拉雅人卻認為，

as part of a larger social genesis.

腐朽的身軀是以成員身分擴充社會規模。

So again, the physical cessation of life

這裡再次凸顯的是，生理上性命的終結

is not the same as death.

不等於死亡。

In fact, a member of society is only truly dead

事實上，社會成員「真正」死亡

when the extended family can agree upon

是在所屬的大家庭同意後，

and marshal the resources necessary

再張羅必需品

to hold a funeral ceremony

來舉辦葬禮，

that is considered appropriate in terms of resources

喪禮合宜與否，端看喪葬資源

for the status of the deceased.

是否與死者社會地位相符。

And this ceremony has to take place

而且，葬禮

in front of the eyes of the whole community

必須在所有成員的見證

with everyone's participation.

與參與下進行。

So after a person's physical death,

一個人的肉體死亡後，

their body is placed in a special room

另闢特殊房間停靈，

in the traditional residence, which is called the tongkonan.

而房間所在的傳統屋宇叫作 tongkonan。

And the tongkonan is symbolic

這種房屋，

not only of the family's identity

不論對家族識別或人的生死循環來說，

but also of the human life cycle from birth to death.

都具有象徵意義。

So essentially, the shape of the building

基本上，

that you're born into is the shape

你出生的住所，

of the structure which carries you

和帶你回到

to your ancestral resting place.

先靈安息處的房屋很像。

Until the funeral ceremony,

喪禮可能在肉體死亡後數年才舉行，

which can be held years after a person's physical death,

在此之前，往生者仍算是家族成員，

the deceased is referred to as "to makala," a sick person,

人們稱他們為 to makala，也就是「病人」的意思；

or "to mama," a person who is asleep,

或是 to mama，

and they continue to be a member of the household.

也就是 「沉睡者」。

They are symbolically fed and cared for,

這時屍體仍被象徵性地供養照顧，

and the family at this time

而家人將會著手一連串的敕令儀式，

will begin a number of ritual injunctions,

與周遭那個更大的「社群」溝通，

which communicates to the wider community around them

告訴他們

that one of their members is undergoing the transition

有一位家族成員，

from this life into the afterlife

正由今生邁向來世，

known as Puya.

這轉換期稱作 Puya。

So I know what some of you must be thinking right now.

我知道此刻你們一定在想：

Is she really saying that these people live

「難不成她說的是，

with the bodies of their dead relatives?

這些傢伙與親人的屍體同住？」

And that's exactly what I'm saying.

沒錯！我的意思就是這樣！

But instead of giving in to the sort of visceral reaction

對這與屍共處、

we have to this idea of proximity to bodies,

與死為鄰的想法，

proximity to death,

還有這與我們生物和醫學上

or how this notion just does not fit

所定義的死亡不符；

into our very biological or medical

與其強烈排斥，

sort of definition of death,

我反而認為，

I like to think about what the Torajan way

看待死亡的方式，

of viewing death encompasses of the human experience

托拉雅人

that the medical definition leaves out.

涵蓋了醫學定義

I think that Torajans socially recognize

所遺漏的人類經驗。

and culturally express

即使多數人接受生醫領域對死亡的定義

what many of us feel to be true

我認為

despite the widespread acceptance

托拉雅人的社會認知和文化再現，

of the biomedical definition of death,

是我們當中許多人也相信的。

and that is that our relationships with other humans,

那就是，

their impact on our social reality,

人類彼此的關係，

doesn't cease with the termination

及其對社會現實的影響，

of the physical processes of the body,

不會因生理機能終止，

that there's a period of transition

就嘎然中止；

as the relationship between the living and the dead

會有一段生死交替的轉換期，

is transformed but not ended.

但非就此結束。

So Torajans express this idea of this enduring relationship

對托拉雅人來說，

by lavishing love and attention

軀體是人際關係最明顯的象徵，

on the most visible symbol of that relationship,

他們以對遺體滿滿的關愛

the human body.

表達這種恆久關係的概念。

So my husband has fond memories

我先生就有 與自己的祖父遺體玩耍說話、

of talking to and playing with

朝夕相處的愉快回憶。

and generally being around his deceased grandfather,

對他來說，這沒什麼好奇怪的！

and for him there is nothing unnatural about this.

這是很自然的過程，

This is a natural part of the process

與死者關係的轉變，

as the family comes to terms with the transition

家人都能

in their relationship to the deceased,

泰然處之。

and this is the transition from relating to the deceased

生前是

as a person who's living

家裡的其中一人；

to relating to the deceased

死後就變成祖先。

as a person who's an ancestor.

現在你們看到的是

And here you can see these wooden effigies

他們祖先的木雕像，

of the ancestors,

這些人的葬禮已經辦過，

so these are people who have already been buried,

也已經下葬。

already had a funeral ceremony.

這些木雕稱作 tau tau。

These are called tau tau.

所以葬禮本身

So the funeral ceremony itself

體現了這種 以關係為基礎的死亡觀。

embodies this relational perspective on death.

死亡對家人和社群的影響，

It ritualizes the impact of death on families

在葬禮中變成了儀式，

and communities.

葬禮也是自覺的時刻；

And it's also a moment of self-awareness.

人們在這時思考自己究竟是誰？

It's a moment when people think about who they are,

在社會中的地位，

their place in society,

於托拉雅宇宙觀相應的生命循環中，

and their role in the life cycle

自己又扮演何種角色？

in accordance with Torajan cosmology.

有一句托拉雅諺語說，

There's a saying in Toraja

所有人都會變成祖父母，

that all people will become grandparents,

意思是去世後，

and what this means is that after death,

我們都會變成先祖。

we all become part of the ancestral line

正是這種世系 在過去與現在間支持我們，

that anchors us between the past and the present

並決定我們所愛的人 未來會是怎樣的角色。

and will define who our loved ones are into the future.

所以，

So essentially, we all become grandparents

就本質來說，

to the generations of human children

我們都會成為

that come after us.

人類未來世代的祖先。

And this metaphor of membership

這種以加入人類社會成員比喻的方式，

in the greater human family

也是當地談論購買獻祭水牛時，

is the way that children also describe

兒女的講法；

the money that they invest

他們相信，

in these sacrificial buffaloes

水牛能將人類的靈魂送往來世。

that are thought to carry people's soul

而且兒女會解釋，

from here to the afterlife,

他們花這筆錢

and children will explain

是為了報答父母這些年來，

that they will invest the money in this

為了照顧自己

because they want to repay their parents

還有在自己身上投資

the debt for all of the years their parents spent

所花的費用。

investing and caring for them.

但水牛獻祭與儀式

But the sacrifice of buffalo

所展示的財富，

and the ritual display of wealth

顯示了往生者的地位，

also exhibits the status of the deceased,

當然也應證了其家族的勢力。

and, by extension, the deceased's family.

所以關係在葬禮中再次獲得確認，

So at funerals, relationships are reconfirmed

但也在儀式演示中有所轉變，

but also transformed

這儀式所凸顯的是

in a ritual drama that highlights

死亡在此地最重要的特徵：

the most salient feature about death in this place:

對生命及生者關係的影響。

its impact on life and the relationships of the living.

托拉雅人如此重視死亡，

So all of this focus on death

不表示他們未曾嚮往

doesn't mean that Torajans don't aspire

長壽的理想，

to the ideal of a long life.

他們有許多

They engage in many practices

促進健康

thought to confer good health

和延年益壽的作法；

and survival to an advanced age.

但面臨耗弱健康的疾病

But they don't put much stock

及衰老時，他們不會費盡心思

in efforts to prolong life in the face of debilitating illness

延長壽命。

or in old age.

據傳在托拉雅，

It's said in Toraja that everybody has

每個人的壽命是註定的，

sort of a predetermined amount of life.

這種天命稱作 sunga。

It's called the sunga'.

就像從捲軸拉出一條線，

And like a thread, it should be allowed to unspool

總會有盡頭。

to its natural end.

當死亡融入生活中的

So by having death as a part

社會文化結構，

of the cultural and social fabric of life,

人們日常健康及養生的選擇

people's everyday decisions about their health

也跟著受影響。

and healthcare are affected.

我先生母系一脈的族長

The patriarch of my husband's maternal clan,

Nenet Katcha，

Nenet Katcha,

看得出來已經快100歲了，

is now approaching the age of 100, as far as we can tell.

而且越來越明顯的是，

And there are increasing signs

他即將踏上今生到來世的旅程 (Puya)。

that he is about to depart on his own journey for Puya.

他去世時悼念儀式會很盛大，

And his death will be greatly mourned.

但我知道，我丈夫一家

But I know that my husband's family

所盼望的那個時刻，

looks forward to the moment

是他不凡生平

when they can ritually display

對一家人的影響，

what his remarkable presence has meant to their lives,

可讓他們表現在儀式中；

when they can ritually recount

那時他們可照例 陳述他的生前事蹟，

his life's narrative,

將他的故事

weaving his story

編入族群的歷史中。

into the history of their community.

他的故事就是族群的故事，

His story is their story.

為他安排的送葬歌曲也將是關於眾人的。

His funeral songs will sing them a song about themselves.

歌曲的故事看不出從何開始，

And it's a story that has no discernible beginning,

也不知何處結束，

no foreseeable end.

會是一個在他軀體消失後

It's a story that goes on

不斷延續的故事。

long after his body no longer does.

人們問我，是否害怕或厭惡

People ask me if I'm frightened or repulsed

處於一個

by participating in a culture

死亡意象

where the physical manifestations of death

隨處可見的文化中？

greet us at every turn.

但以社會歷程，

But I see something profoundly transformative

而非生理過程看待死亡，

in experiencing death as a social process

讓我看到一些深刻的轉變。

and not just a biological one.

事實上，在美國的醫療體系下，

In reality, the relationship between the living and the dead

生者與死者間的關係也有特別之處，

has its own drama in the U.S. healthcare system,

對壽命的決定，

where decisions about how long to stretch

不只取決於醫療技術，

the thread of life are made based on our emotional

還有我們跟週遭的人之間的

and social ties with the people around us,

情感與社會關係。

not just on medicine's ability to prolong life.

我們和托拉雅人一樣，

We, like the Torajans,

以自身加諸於死亡的

base our decisions about life

意義和定義，

on the meanings and the definitions

為生命做決定。

that we ascribe to death.

我不是建議在座的各位，

So I'm not suggesting that anyone in this audience

立刻採納

should run out and adopt the traditions

托拉雅人的傳統。

of the Torajans.

在美國

It might be a little bit difficult

要做到這些有些困難，

to put into play in the United States.

但我想問的是，將生理上的死亡，

But I want to ask what we can gain

看成更偉大的人類歷史，而不僅是一種生物性過程，

from seeing physical death not only as a biological process

我們將學到什麼呢？

but as part of the greater human story.

以愛看待遺體，

What would it be like to look on

因為那幾乎就是我們群體的一部份，

the expired human form with love

若這樣看又會怎樣呢？

because it's so intimately a part of who we all are?

若我們將生命

If we could expand our definition of death

包含於廣義的死亡定義，

to encompass life,

就能把死亡經歷當作生命的一部份，

we could experience death as part of life

面對它時

and perhaps face death

就不會只有恐懼。

with something other than fear.

也許當前美國面臨的醫療體系挑戰，

Perhaps one of the answers to the challenges

尤其是臨終照護，

that are facing the U.S. healthcare system,

解決方式之一

particularly in the end-of-life care,

可能簡單到只要轉變看法；

is as simple as a shift in perspective,

以臨終照護來說，

and the shift in perspective in this case

就是檢視死亡的社會性。

would be to look at the social life of every death.

這樣做將讓我們發現，

It might help us recognize that the way we limit

我們論及死亡時

our conversation about death

侷限在生物醫療方面，

to something that's medical or biological

反映出我們都有逃避死亡，

is reflective of a larger culture that we all share