And in that spirit, I want to spring on you all a pop quiz.

我今天的主題是學習

Ready?

我要給在座的各位一個隨堂小考

When does learning begin?

準備好了嗎？

Now as you ponder that question,

我們從什麼時候開始學習？

maybe you're thinking about the first day of preschool

現在就像你们所想

or kindergarten,

可能你在想幼稚園

the first time that kids are in a classroom with a teacher.

或托兒所的第一天

Or maybe you've called to mind the toddler phase

孩子們第一次在教室和老師相處

when children are learning how to walk and talk

或是小孩的學步階段

and use a fork.

當小孩正學著走路、說話

Maybe you've encountered the Zero-to-Three movement,

還有學習使用叉子的時候

which asserts that the most important years for learning

你也可能知道零到三變化

are the earliest ones.

也就是說零歲到三歲是學習過程中

And so your answer to my question would be:

最早也最重要的階段

Learning begins at birth.

所以，你會回答

Well today I want to present to you

學習是從出生時才開始

an idea that may be surprising

但是，我今天要告訴你們的答案

and may even seem implausible,

可能會讓你們大吃一驚

but which is supported by the latest evidence

你們甚至認為這不太可能

from psychology and biology.

但是，這個答案

And that is that some of the most important learning we ever do

有心理學及生物學的最新證據佐證

happens before we're born,

而且這段異常重要的學習過程

while we're still in the womb.

從我們還在子宮的時候

Now I'm a science reporter.

就已經開始

I write books and magazine articles.

我現在是科學記者

And I'm also a mother.

我會寫一些相關書籍，雜誌上也看的到我的文章

And those two roles came together for me

我現在同時也是個媽媽

in a book that I wrote called "Origins."

在我寫這本「起源」的時候

"Origins" is a report from the front lines

這兩個角色合為一體

of an exciting new field

「起源」這個報告是來自于

called fetal origins.

非常活躍的新領域前沿

Fetal origins is a scientific discipline

叫做台兒的起源

that emerged just about two decades ago,

直到二十年前，才有人開始研究

and it's based on the theory

胎兒的起源這一塊科學領域

that our health and well-being throughout our lives

他們認為我們出生前

is crucially affected

待在子宮內的九個月

by the nine months we spend in the womb.

深深著影響我們

Now this theory was of more than just intellectual interest to me.

這一輩子的健康及幸福

I was myself pregnant

這塊領域所給我的好處，不只是學術方面

while I was doing the research for the book.

我當時也懷孕了

And one of the most fascinating insights

在我為這本書做這項研究的時候

I took from this work

找資料的時候，我發現許多有趣的事

is that we're all learning about the world

其中一件

even before we enter it.

是我們還沒來這世上報到之前

When we hold our babies for the first time,

我們已經在學習了

we might imagine that they're clean slates,

當我們第一次抱著寶寶

unmarked by life,

我們想像著他們是塊無暇的石板

when in fact, they've already been shaped by us

沒有歲月的痕跡

and by the particular world we live in.

然而，事實上他們已經被我們

Today I want to share with you some of the amazing things

以及這個世界給影響

that scientists are discovering

今天，我想和你們分享一些

about what fetuses learn

科學家發現的驚人事實

while they're still in their mothers' bellies.

也就是胎兒

First of all,

在媽媽肚子裡如何學習

they learn the sound of their mothers' voices.

首先

Because sounds from the outside world

他們學會辨別媽媽的聲音

have to travel through the mother's abdominal tissue

外來世界的聲音

and through the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus,

從媽媽的腹部傳送進去

the voices fetuses hear,

到了羊水

starting around the fourth month of gestation,

大概在懷孕的第四個月

are muted and muffled.

寶寶就會隱約聽到

One researcher says

那些柔和的聲音

that they probably sound a lot like the the voice of Charlie Brown's teacher

一位研究員說

in the old "Peanuts" cartoon.

胎兒聽到的聲音，聽起來大概就像是過去的《花生漫畫》中

But the pregnant woman's own voice

查理布朗他老師的聲音

reverberates through her body,

孕婦自己的聲音

reaching the fetus much more readily.

會在身體裡一直迴盪

And because the fetus is with her all the time,

胎兒很快就會聽到了

it hears her voice a lot.

因為胎兒一直都在媽媽的肚子裡

Once the baby's born, it recognizes her voice

胎兒就常常聽到媽媽的聲音

and it prefers listening to her voice

一旦寶寶出生，寶寶就能辨認出媽媽的聲音

over anyone else's.

此外，比起其他人的聲音

How can we know this?

寶寶也比較喜歡媽媽的聲音

Newborn babies can't do much,

我們是怎麼知道的呢？

but one thing they're really good at is sucking.

剛出生的寶寶能做的事情不多

Researchers take advantage of this fact

其中他們滿擅長的就是吸吮

by rigging up two rubber nipples,

研究員便利用寶寶這項特點

so that if a baby sucks on one,

做了兩個橡膠奶嘴

it hears a recording of its mother's voice

研究員讓寶寶吸吮其中一個

on a pair of headphones,

同時讓寶寶帶了一副耳機

and if it sucks on the other nipple,

聽自己媽媽的聲音

it hears a recording of a female stranger's voice.

之後，又讓寶寶吸吮另一個

Babies quickly show their preference

同時讓寶寶聽其它女性的聲音

by choosing the first one.

寶寶很快地選擇要吸吮第一個奶嘴

Scientists also take advantage of the fact

這就表現出寶寶的偏好

that babies will slow down their sucking

科學家也發現

when something interests them

如果寶寶對某樣事物感興趣

and resume their fast sucking

吸吮速度就會慢下來

when they get bored.

並且回到快速的吸吮速度

This is how researchers discovered

他們感到無聊的時候

that, after women repeatedly read aloud

科學家觀察懷孕的媽媽們

a section of Dr. Seuss' "The Cat in the Hat" while they were pregnant,

不斷地大聲朗誦

their newborn babies recognized that passage

蘇斯博士的《戴帽子的貓》其中一章節

when they hear it outside the womb.

當那些寶寶出生後

My favorite experiment of this kind

他們可以認得那個故事章節

is the one that showed that the babies

這類實驗中，我最喜歡的

of women who watched a certain soap opera

是媽媽們在懷孕的時候

every day during pregnancy

每天都看固定的肥皂劇

recognized the theme song of that show

在那些寶寶出生後

once they were born.

他們可以認得出

So fetuses are even learning

那些肥皂劇的主題曲

about the particular language that's spoken

因此，胎兒還在子宮內時

in the world that they'll be born into.

就在學著了解將要出生的周遭環境

A study published last year

所使用的語言

found that from birth, from the moment of birth,

去年發表的一項研究指出

babies cry in the accent

在出生的那一刻

of their mother's native language.

寶寶哭聲的腔調

French babies cry on a rising note

是媽媽母語的腔調

while German babies end on a falling note,

法國寶寶的哭聲，聲調較高

imitating the melodic contours

德國寶寶的哭聲，聲調較低

of those languages.

哭聲聽起來

Now why would this kind of fetal learning

像是模仿自己母語的腔調

be useful?

為什麼胎兒學這些東西、

It may have evolved to aid the baby's survival.

是有用的呢？

From the moment of birth,

這類學習可能幫助寶寶在未來活下來

the baby responds most to the voice

從出生那一刻開始

of the person who is most likely to care for it --

寶寶對媽媽的聲音

its mother.

也就是最可能照顧寶寶的人

It even makes its cries

反應最多

sound like the mother's language,

寶寶甚至會讓自己的哭聲

which may further endear the baby to the mother,

聽起來像媽媽說的話

and which may give the baby a head start

寶寶也因此可能更愛自己的媽媽

in the critical task

寶寶也是從這時開始進行

of learning how to understand and speak

一項很重要的任務

its native language.

那就是開始了解

But it's not just sounds

並使用自己的母語

that fetuses are learning about in utero.

胎兒在子宮內所學的

It's also tastes and smells.

不僅僅是關於聽覺

By seven months of gestation,

還有味覺和嗅覺

the fetus' taste buds are fully developed,

懷孕七個月之後

and its olfactory receptors, which allow it to smell,

胎兒的味蕾已經發育健全

are functioning.

胎兒用來聞東西的嗅覺受器

The flavors of the food a pregnant woman eats

也開始運作

find their way into the amniotic fluid,

孕婦吃的食物的味道

which is continuously swallowed

會傳到羊水

by the fetus.

胎兒會一直吸收

Babies seem to remember and prefer these tastes

那個帶了味道的羊水

once they're out in the world.

一旦寶寶來到這個世上，他們似乎記得那個味道

In one experiment, a group of pregnant women

也特別喜歡那個味道

was asked to drink a lot of carrot juice

有一個實驗要求一群孕婦

during their third trimester of pregnancy,

在他們懷孕期間的最後三個月

while another group of pregnant women

喝很多的胡蘿蔔汁

drank only water.

而另一群的孕婦

Six months later, the women's infants

只有喝水

were offered cereal mixed with carrot juice,

六個月之後，我們讓那些孕婦的寶寶

and their facial expressions were observed while they ate it.

吃了有胡蘿蔔口味的綜合麥片

The offspring of the carrot juice drinking women

在他們吃的時候，我們把他們臉上的表情記錄下來

ate more carrot-flavored cereal,

先前喝胡蘿蔔汁的孕婦所生的小孩

and from the looks of it,

吃比較多胡蘿蔔口味的麥片

they seemed to enjoy it more.

從他們的表情看來

A sort of French version of this experiment

他們也似乎比較喜歡胡蘿蔔口味

was carried out in Dijon, France

這個實驗的一個法國版本

where researchers found

在法國第戎進行

that mothers who consumed food and drink

當地的研究員發現

flavored with licorice-flavored anise during pregnancy

懷孕期間的母親，無論吃的還是喝的

showed a preference for anise

都參有甘草味道的茴香

on their first day of life,

那些寶寶在出生的第一天

and again, when they were tested later,

就對茴香有所偏好

on their fourth day of life.

在寶寶出生的第四天

Babies whose mothers did not eat anise during pregnancy

研究員又再一次進行實驗

showed a reaction that translated roughly as "yuck."

當初懷孕時沒有食用茴香的媽媽

What this means

他們的寶寶對茴香的反應就是「噁心」

is that fetuses are effectively being taught by their mothers

這就是說

about what is safe and good to eat.

媽媽確實能夠有效的教導肚子裡的寶寶

Fetuses are also being taught

什麼東西是可以安全食用的

about the particular culture that they'll be joining

食物最能表現出一個地方的文化

through one of culture's most powerful expressions,

而媽媽肚子裡的胎兒

which is food.

可以透過食物去學習

They're being introduced to the characteristic flavors and spices

那個特定地方的文化

of their culture's cuisine

寶寶甚至在出生前

even before birth.

就在學習當地食物的

Now it turns out that fetuses are learning even bigger lessons.

味道及香味

But before I get to that,

現在研究證明，胎兒甚至在學習比食物更困難的東西

I want to address something that you may be wondering about.

但是，在那之前

The notion of fetal learning

我想說明一件你們可能都在思考的事情

may conjure up for you attempts to enrich the fetus --

也就是胎教

like playing Mozart through headphones

你們可能想把耳機放到媽媽的肚子上

placed on a pregnant belly.

並播放莫札特的音樂

But actually, the nine-month-long process

讓寶寶變得聰明些

of molding and shaping that goes on in the womb

然而，胎兒待在子宮的時間有九個月

is a lot more visceral and consequential than that.

在這期間胎兒所受到的影響

Much of what a pregnant woman encounters in her daily life --

遠比聽音樂更有影響力，也更重要

the air she breathes,

許多孕婦在日常生活中會遇到的事情

the food and drink she consumes,

像是呼吸的空氣

the chemicals she's exposed to,

喝的東西，吃的食物

even the emotions she feels --

孕婦接觸到的藥品

are shared in some fashion with her fetus.

甚至孕婦自己的情緒

They make up a mix of influences

或多或少都是和胎兒共享的

as individual and idiosyncratic

這些事物對胎兒所造成的影響

as the woman herself.

如同對孕婦造成的影響一樣

The fetus incorporates these offerings

每個都是明顯而且不同的

into its own body,

胎兒把這些事物所造成的影響

makes them part of its flesh and blood.

吸收到身體裡

And often it does something more.

而那些東西也溶于胎兒的血肉中

It treats these maternal contributions

事情還不僅如此

as information,

胎兒會把媽媽給他的這些東西

as what I like to call biological postcards

當作是種資訊

from the world outside.

我稱這種資訊為外面世界所寄來的

So what a fetus is learning about in utero

生物資訊明信片

is not Mozart's "Magic Flute"

因此，胎兒在子宮內所要學習的事物

but answers to questions much more critical to its survival.

不是莫札特的「魔笛」

Will it be born into a world of abundance

而是攸關存亡問題的反應

or scarcity?

寶寶是出生在一個富庶的

Will it be safe and protected,

還是貧困的世界？

or will it face constant dangers and threats?

會受到安全的保護嗎？

Will it live a long, fruitful life

還是得面對接連而來的危險及威脅呢？

or a short, harried one?

這一生是過得既長壽又充實呢？

The pregnant woman's diet and stress level in particular

還是短暫又煩心？

provide important clues to prevailing conditions

尤其從孕婦的日常飲食及壓力水平

like a finger lifted to the wind.

就能夠看出一些重要的線索

The resulting tuning and tweaking

寶寶健不健康，看孕婦就知道

of a fetus' brain and other organs

每個胎兒的大腦及器官

are part of what give us humans

在出生後都有點不一樣

our enormous flexibility,

而這或多或少讓我們人類

our ability to thrive

在許多的環境當中

in a huge variety of environments,

能夠擁有很強的適應力

from the country to the city,

以及繼續成長的能力

from the tundra to the desert.

從鄉村到都市

To conclude, I want to tell you two stories

從苔原到沙漠

about how mothers teach their children about the world

現在，我要用兩個故事做為今天的結論

even before they're born.

關於媽媽如何教導仍未出生的孩子

In the autumn of 1944,

這個世界

the darkest days of World War II,

一九四四年的秋天

German troops blockaded Western Holland,

世界二次大戰最黑暗的日子

turning away all shipments of food.

德國軍隊封鎖了荷蘭西部

The opening of the Nazi's siege

驅逐了所有裝送食物的船隻

was followed by one of the harshest winters in decades --

納粹的圍攻開始

so cold the water in the canals froze solid.

此外，接著是數十年來最嚴酷的寒冬

Soon food became scarce,

冷到連運河的水都結成冰

with many Dutch surviving on just 500 calories a day --

食物很快就不夠了

a quarter of what they consumed before the war.

很多荷蘭人一天僅攝取五百卡路里生存下去

As weeks of deprivation stretched into months,

五百卡中有四分之一是在戰前所補充的

some resorted to eating tulip bulbs.

沒有食物的日子，從數週變成數月

By the beginning of May,

許多人沒有東西吃，只好吃鬱金香的根

the nation's carefully rationed food reserve

接著，五月開始了

was completely exhausted.

荷蘭當初仔細分配的食物存量

The specter of mass starvation loomed.

也完全耗盡了

And then on May 5th, 1945,

因為飢荒而餓死的人越來越多

the siege came to a sudden end

一九四五年，五月五號

when Holland was liberated

納粹的圍攻突然結束

by the Allies.

因為

The "Hunger Winter," as it came to be known,

荷蘭被同盟國解放了

killed some 10,000 people

這就是我們現在所知的「饑饉之冬」

and weakened thousands more.

這場寒冬奪走一萬條人命

But there was another population that was affected --

有數千人變得虛弱不已

the 40,000 fetuses

除了這些人之外，還有另一群受到影響的人

in utero during the siege.

就是當初圍攻時

Some of the effects of malnutrition during pregnancy

待在子宮內的四萬名胎兒

were immediately apparent

因為懷孕期間營養失調的關係

in higher rates of stillbirths,

有些影響一下就看出來

birth defects, low birth weights

像是較高的死胎率

and infant mortality.

先天缺陷，體重不足

But others wouldn't be discovered for many years.

以及嬰兒死亡率

Decades after the "Hunger Winter,"

其它的影響要幾年後才會發現

researchers documented

研究員將當初「饑饉之冬」生還者的小孩

that people whose mothers were pregnant during the siege